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Sultan H, Takeuchi Y, Ward JP, Sharma N, Liu TT, Sukhov V, Firulyova M, Song Y, Ameh S, Brioschi S, Khantakova D, Arthur CD, White JM, Kohlmiller H, Salazar AM, Burns R, Costa HA, Moynihan KD, Yeung YA, Djuretic I, Schumacher TN, Sheehan KCF, Colonna M, Allison JP, Murphy KM, Artyomov MN, Schreiber RD. Neoantigen-specific cytotoxic Tr1 CD4 T cells suppress cancer immunotherapy. Nature 2024:10.1038/s41586-024-07752-y. [PMID: 39048822 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07752-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
CD4+ T cells can either enhance or inhibit tumour immunity. Although regulatory T cells have long been known to impede antitumour responses1-5, other CD4+ T cells have recently been implicated in inhibiting this response6,7. Yet, the nature and function of the latter remain unclear. Here, using vaccines containing MHC class I (MHC-I) neoantigens (neoAgs) and different doses of tumour-derived MHC-II neoAgs, we discovered that whereas the inclusion of vaccines with low doses of MHC-II-restricted peptides (LDVax) promoted tumour rejection, vaccines containing high doses of the same MHC-II neoAgs (HDVax) inhibited rejection. Characterization of the inhibitory cells induced by HDVax identified them as type 1 regulatory T (Tr1) cells expressing IL-10, granzyme B, perforin, CCL5 and LILRB4. Tumour-specific Tr1 cells suppressed tumour rejection induced by anti-PD1, LDVax or adoptively transferred tumour-specific effector T cells. Mechanistically, HDVax-induced Tr1 cells selectively killed MHC-II tumour antigen-presenting type 1 conventional dendritic cells (cDC1s), leading to low numbers of cDC1s in tumours. We then documented modalities to overcome this inhibition, specifically via anti-LILRB4 blockade, using a CD8-directed IL-2 mutein, or targeted loss of cDC2/monocytes. Collectively, these data show that cytotoxic Tr1 cells, which maintain peripheral tolerance, also inhibit antitumour responses and thereby function to impede immune control of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hussein Sultan
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- The Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Yoshiko Takeuchi
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- The Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Jeffrey P Ward
- Department of Medicine, Division of Oncology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Naveen Sharma
- Department of Immunology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Tian-Tian Liu
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Vladimir Sukhov
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Maria Firulyova
- Almazov National Medical Research Centre, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Yuang Song
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- The Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Samuel Ameh
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- The Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Simone Brioschi
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Darya Khantakova
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Cora D Arthur
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- The Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - J Michael White
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Heather Kohlmiller
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- The Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Ton N Schumacher
- Netherlands Cancer Institute, Oncode Institute, Amsterdam, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Kathleen C F Sheehan
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- The Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Marco Colonna
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - James P Allison
- Department of Immunology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
- The Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Kenneth M Murphy
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Maxim N Artyomov
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Robert D Schreiber
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- The Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- The Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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2
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Aristin Revilla S, Kranenburg O, Coffer PJ. Colorectal Cancer-Infiltrating Regulatory T Cells: Functional Heterogeneity, Metabolic Adaptation, and Therapeutic Targeting. Front Immunol 2022; 13:903564. [PMID: 35874729 PMCID: PMC9304750 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.903564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a heterogeneous disease with one of the highest rates of incidence and mortality among cancers worldwide. Understanding the CRC tumor microenvironment (TME) is essential to improve diagnosis and treatment. Within the CRC TME, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) consist of a heterogeneous mixture of adaptive immune cells composed of mainly anti-tumor effector T cells (CD4+ and CD8+ subpopulations), and suppressive regulatory CD4+ T (Treg) cells. The balance between these two populations is critical in anti-tumor immunity. In general, while tumor antigen-specific T cell responses are observed, tumor clearance frequently does not occur. Treg cells are considered to play an important role in tumor immune escape by hampering effective anti-tumor immune responses. Therefore, CRC-tumors with increased numbers of Treg cells have been associated with promoting tumor development, immunotherapy failure, and a poorer prognosis. Enrichment of Treg cells in CRC can have multiple causes including their differentiation, recruitment, and preferential transcriptional and metabolic adaptation to the TME. Targeting tumor-associated Treg cell may be an effective addition to current immunotherapy approaches. Strategies for depleting Treg cells, such as low-dose cyclophosphamide treatment, or targeting one or more checkpoint receptors such as CTLA-4 with PD-1 with monoclonal antibodies, have been explored. These have resulted in activation of anti-tumor immune responses in CRC-patients. Overall, it seems likely that CRC-associated Treg cells play an important role in determining the success of such therapeutic approaches. Here, we review our understanding of the role of Treg cells in CRC, the possible mechanisms that support their homeostasis in the tumor microenvironment, and current approaches for manipulating Treg cells function in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Aristin Revilla
- Center Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Regenerative Medicine Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Laboratory Translational Oncology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Onno Kranenburg
- Laboratory Translational Oncology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Paul J. Coffer
- Center Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Regenerative Medicine Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Paul J. Coffer,
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3
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Kamphorst AO, Araki K, Ahmed R. Beyond adjuvants: immunomodulation strategies to enhance T cell immunity. Vaccine 2016; 33 Suppl 2:B21-8. [PMID: 26022562 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.12.082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2014] [Revised: 12/30/2014] [Accepted: 12/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Engagement of CD8T cells is a crucial aspect of immune responses to pathogens and in tumor surveillance. Nonetheless most vaccination strategies with common adjuvants fail to elicit long-term memory CD8T cells. Increased knowledge on the cellular and molecular requirements for CD8T cell activation has unveiled new opportunities to directly modulate CD8T cells to generate optimal responses. During chronic infections and cancer, immunomodulation strategies to enhance T cell responses may be particularly necessary to overcome the immunosuppressive microenvironment. In this review we will discuss blockade of inhibitory receptors; interleukin-2 administration; regulatory T cell modulation; and targeting of mTOR, as means to enhance CD8T cell immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice O Kamphorst
- Emory Vaccine Center and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, 1510 Clifton Rd Rm G211, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Koichi Araki
- Emory Vaccine Center and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, 1510 Clifton Rd Rm G211, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Rafi Ahmed
- Emory Vaccine Center and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, 1510 Clifton Rd Rm G211, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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4
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Immune response to cancer therapy: mounting an effective antitumor response and mechanisms of resistance. Trends Cancer 2015; 1:66-75. [PMID: 26457331 DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2015.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Chemotherapy and radiotherapy have been extensively used to eradicate cancer based on their direct cytocidal effects on rapidly proliferating tumor cells. Accumulating evidence indicates that these therapies also dramatically affect resident and recruited immune cells that actively support tumor growth. We now appreciate that mobilization of effector CD8+ T cells enhances efficacy of chemotherapy and radiotherapy; remarkable clinical advances have been achieved by blocking regulatory programs limiting cytotoxic CD8+ T cell activity . This review discusses immune-mediated mechanisms underlying efficacy of chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and provides a perspective on how understanding tissue-based immune mechanisms can be used to guide therapeutic approaches combining immune and cytotoxic therapies to improve outcomes for a larger subset of patients than currently achievable.
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Abstract
This review explores the incessant evolutionary interaction and co-development between immune system evolution and somatic evolution, to put it into context with the short, over 60-year, detailed human study of this extraordinary protective system. Over millions of years, the evolutionary development of the immune system in most species has been continuously shaped by environmental interactions between microbes, and aberrant somatic cells, including malignant cells. Not only has evolution occurred in somatic cells to adapt to environmental pressures for survival purposes, but the immune system and its function has been successively shaped by those same evolving somatic cells and microorganisms through continuous adaptive symbiotic processes of progressive simultaneous immunological and somatic change to provide what we observe today. Indeed, the immune system as an environmental influence has also shaped somatic and microbial evolution. Although the immune system is tuned to primarily controlling microbiological challenges for combatting infection, it can also remove damaged and aberrant cells, including cancer cells to induce long-term cures. Our knowledge of how this occurs is just emerging. Here we consider the connections between immunity, infection and cancer, by searching back in time hundreds of millions of years to when multi-cellular organisms first began. We are gradually appreciating that the immune system has evolved into a truly brilliant and efficient protective mechanism, the importance of which we are just beginning to now comprehend. Understanding these aspects will likely lead to more effective cancer and other therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendon J Coventry
- Discipline of Surgery, Royal Adelaide Hospital, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5000, Australia
| | - Maciej Henneberg
- Biological Anthropology and Comparative Anatomy Unit, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia.,Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, The University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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6
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Abstract
This review explores the incessant evolutionary interaction and co-development between immune system evolution and somatic evolution, to put it into context with the short, over 60-year, detailed human study of this extraordinary protective system. Over millions of years, the evolutionary development of the immune system in most species has been continuously shaped by environmental interactions between microbes, and aberrant somatic cells, including malignant cells. Not only has evolution occurred in somatic cells to adapt to environmental pressures for survival purposes, but the immune system and its function has been successively shaped by those same evolving somatic cells and microorganisms through continuous adaptive symbiotic processes of progressive simultaneous immunological and somatic change to provide what we observe today. Indeed, the immune system as an environmental influence has also shaped somatic and microbial evolution. Although the immune system is tuned to primarily controlling microbiological challenges for combatting infection, it can also remove damaged and aberrant cells, including cancer cells to induce long-term cures. Our knowledge of how this occurs is just emerging. Here we consider the connections between immunity, infection and cancer, by searching back in time hundreds of millions of years to when multi-cellular organisms first began. We are gradually appreciating that the immune system has evolved into a truly brilliant and efficient protective mechanism, the importance of which we are just beginning to now comprehend. Understanding these aspects will likely lead to more effective cancer and other therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendon J Coventry
- Discipline of Surgery, Royal Adelaide Hospital, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5000, Australia
| | - Maciej Henneberg
- Biological Anthropology and Comparative Anatomy Unit, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia.,Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, The University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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7
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Abstract
Research over the past decade has revealed the increasingly complex biologic features of the CD4(+) T-cell lineage. This T-cell subset, which was originally defined on the basis of helper activity in antibody responses, expresses receptors that recognize peptides that have been processed and presented by specialized antigen-presenting cells. At the core of the adaptive immune response, CD4 T cells display a large degree of plasticity and the ability to differentiate into multiple sublineages in response to developmental and environmental cues. These differentiated sublineages can orchestrate a broad range of effector activities during the initiation, expansion, and memory phase of an immune response. The contribution of CD4 cells to host defense against pathogenic invasion and regulation of autoimmunity is now well established. Emerging evidence suggests that CD4 cells also actively participate in shaping antitumor immunity. Here, we outline the biologic properties of CD4 T-cell subsets with an emphasis on their contribution to the antitumor response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye-Jung Kim
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Microbiology & Immunobiology, Division of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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8
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Hermans C, Anz D, Engel J, Kirchner T, Endres S, Mayr D. Analysis of FoxP3+ T-regulatory cells and CD8+ T-cells in ovarian carcinoma: location and tumor infiltration patterns are key prognostic markers. PLoS One 2014; 9:e111757. [PMID: 25365237 PMCID: PMC4218808 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2014] [Accepted: 09/30/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Tumor infiltrating CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ regulatory immune cells (Treg) have been associated with impaired anti- tumor immune response and unfavorable prognosis for patients affected by ovarian carcinoma, whereas CD8+ T-cells have been found to positively influence survival rates in a large panel of solid tumors. Recently, density, location and tumor infiltration patterns of the respective immune cell subtypes have been identified as key prognostic factors for different types of tumors. Patients and Methods We stained 210 human ovarian carcinoma samples immunhistochemically for FoxP3 and CD8 to identify the impact different immune cell patterns have on generally accepted prognostic variables as well as on overall survival. Results We found that FoxP3+ cells located within lymphoid aggregates surrounding the tumor were strongly associated with reduced survival time (P = 0.007). Central accumulation of CD8+ effector cells within the tumor bed shows a positive effect on survival (P = 0,001). Conclusion The distribution pattern of immune cells within the tumor environment strongly influences prognosis and overall survival time of patients with ovarian carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Hermans
- Department of Pathology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - David Anz
- Center of Integrated Protein Science Munich (CIPS-M) Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Jutta Engel
- Tumorregister Munich, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Kirchner
- Department of Pathology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan Endres
- Center of Integrated Protein Science Munich (CIPS-M) Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Doris Mayr
- Department of Pathology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
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9
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Rüter J, Barnett BG, Kryczek I, Brumlik MJ, Daniel BJ, Coukos G, Zou W, Curiel TJ. Manipulating T regulatory cells in cancer immunotherapy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1586/17469872.1.4.589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Zhang L, Feng D, Yu LX, Tsung K, Norton JA. Preexisting antitumor immunity augments the antitumor effects of chemotherapy. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2013; 62:1061-71. [PMID: 23595208 PMCID: PMC11028969 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-013-1417-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2012] [Accepted: 03/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Efficacy of cancer chemotherapy is generally believed to be the result of direct drug killing of tumor cells. However, increased tumor cell killing does not always lead to improved efficacy. Herein, we demonstrate that the status of antitumor immunity at the time of chemotherapy treatment is a critical factor affecting the therapeutic outcome in that tumor-bearing mice that possess preexisting antitumor immunity respond to chemotherapy much better than those that do not. Enhancing antitumor immunity before or at the time of chemotherapy-induced antigen release increases subsequent response to chemotherapy significantly. By in vitro and in vivo measurements of antitumor immunity, we found a close correlation between the intensity of antitumor immunity activated by chemotherapy and the efficacy of treatment. Immune intervention with interleukin-12 during the early phase of chemotherapy-induced immune activation greatly amplifies the antitumor response, often resulting in complete tumor eradication not only at the chemo-treated local site, but also systemically. These findings provide additional evidence for an immune-mediated antitumor response to chemotherapy. Further, our results show that timely immune modification of chemotherapy-activated antitumor immunity can result in enhanced antitumor-immune response and complete tumor eradication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingbing Zhang
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, H3591, Stanford, CA 94305-5641 USA
| | - Dongdong Feng
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, H3591, Stanford, CA 94305-5641 USA
| | - Lynda X. Yu
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, H3591, Stanford, CA 94305-5641 USA
| | - Kangla Tsung
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, H3591, Stanford, CA 94305-5641 USA
| | - Jeffrey A. Norton
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, H3591, Stanford, CA 94305-5641 USA
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11
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The impact of the myeloid response to radiation therapy. Clin Dev Immunol 2013; 2013:281958. [PMID: 23653658 PMCID: PMC3638700 DOI: 10.1155/2013/281958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2013] [Revised: 03/15/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Radiation therapy is showing potential as a partner for immunotherapies in preclinical cancer models and early clinical studies. As has been discussed elsewhere, radiation provides debulking, antigen and adjuvant release, and inflammatory targeting of effector cells to the treatment site, thereby assisting multiple critical checkpoints in antitumor adaptive immunity. Adaptive immunity is terminated by inflammatory resolution, an active process which ensures that inflammatory damage is repaired and tissue function is restored. We discuss how radiation therapy similarly triggers inflammation followed by repair, the consequences to adaptive immune responses in the treatment site, and how the myeloid response to radiation may impact immunotherapies designed to improve control of residual cancer cells.
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Mkrtichyan M, Najjar YG, Raulfs EC, Liu L, Langerman S, Guittard G, Ozbun L, Khleif SN. B7-DC-Ig enhances vaccine effect by a novel mechanism dependent on PD-1 expression level on T cell subsets. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 189:2338-47. [PMID: 22837483 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1103085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Programmed death receptor 1 (PD-1) is an important signaling molecule often involved in tumor-mediated suppression of activated immune cells. Binding of this receptor to its ligands, B7-H1 (PD-L1) and B7-DC (PD-L2), attenuates T cell activation, reduces IL-2 and IFN-γ secretion, decreases proliferation and cytotoxicity, and induces apoptosis. B7-DC-Ig is a recombinant protein that binds and targets PD-1. It is composed of an extracellular domain of murine B7-DC fused to the Fc portion of murine IgG2a. In this study, we demonstrate that B7-DC-Ig can enhance the therapeutic efficacy of vaccine when combined with cyclophosphamide. We show that this combination significantly enhances Ag-specific immune responses and leads to complete eradication of established tumors in 60% of mice and that this effect is CD8 dependent. We identified a novel mechanism by which B7-DC-Ig exerts its therapeutic effect that is distinctly different from direct blocking of the PD-L1-PD-1 interaction. In this study, we demonstrate that there are significant differences between levels and timing of surface PD-1 expression on different T cell subsets. We found that these differences play critical roles in anti-tumor immune effect exhibited by B7-DC-Ig through inhibiting proliferation of PD-1(high) CD4 T cells, leading to a significant decrease in the level of these cells, which are enriched for regulatory T cells, within the tumor. In addition, it also leads to a decrease in PD-1(high) CD8 T cells, tipping the balance toward nonexhausted functional PD-1(low) CD8 T cells. We believe that the PD-1 expression level on T cells is a crucial factor that needs to be considered when designing PD-1-targeting immune therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikayel Mkrtichyan
- Cancer Vaccine Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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13
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Wang C, Lee JH, Kim CH. Optimal population of FoxP3+ T cells in tumors requires an antigen priming-dependent trafficking receptor switch. PLoS One 2012; 7:e30793. [PMID: 22292042 PMCID: PMC3264621 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2011] [Accepted: 12/29/2011] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
FoxP3+ T cells populate tumors and regulate anti-tumor immunity. The requirement for optimal population of FoxP3+ regulatory T cells in tumors remains unclear. We investigated the migration requirement and stability of tumor-associated FoxP3+ T cells. We found that only memory, but not naïve, FoxP3+ T cells are highly enriched in tumors. Almost all of the tumor-infiltrating FoxP3+ T cells express Helios, an antigen associated either with thymus-generated FoxP3+ T cells or activated T cells in the periphery. The tumor-infiltrating FoxP3+ T cells largely lack CD62L and CCR7, two trafficking receptors required for T cell migration into secondary lymphoid tissues. Instead, the tumor infiltrating FoxP3+ T cells highly express memory/tumor-associated CCR8 and CXCR4. Antigen priming is required for induction of this trafficking receptor phenotype in FoxP3+ T cells and only antigen primed, but not antigen-inexperienced naive, FoxP3+ T cells can efficiently migrate into tumors. While the migration of FoxP3+ T cells into tumors was a readily detectable event, generation of induced FoxP3+ T cells within tumors was unexpectedly inefficient. Genetic marking of current and ex-FoxP3+ T cells revealed that tumor-infiltrating FoxP3+ T cells are highly stable and do not readily convert back to FoxP3− T cells. Taken together, our results indicate that population of tumors with thymus-generated FoxP3+ T cells requires an antigen priming-dependent trafficking receptor switch in lymphoid tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanwu Wang
- Laboratory of Immunology and Hematopoiesis, Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue Cancer Center, Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Jee H. Lee
- Laboratory of Immunology and Hematopoiesis, Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue Cancer Center, Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Chang H. Kim
- Laboratory of Immunology and Hematopoiesis, Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue Cancer Center, Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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14
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Raghavan S, Quiding-Järbrink M. Regulatory T cells in gastrointestinal tumors. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2011; 5:489-501. [PMID: 21780896 DOI: 10.1586/egh.11.44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Tregs) have the ability to suppress the activity of most other lymphoid cells, as well as dendritic cells through cell-cell contact-dependent mechanisms, which have not yet been fully defined. Tregs are a key component of a functional immune system and Treg deficiency is associated with severe autoimmunity and allergies. However, Tregs specific for tumor-associated antigens are present in cancer patients and Tregs accumulate in many types of solid tumors, where they probably act to promote tumor escape from cytotoxic immune responses. Indeed, some studies even show a negative correlation between Treg infiltration and survival of the patient. Several studies indicate an active recruitment of Tregs to the tumor site and the mechanisms of Treg accumulation are starting to be better understood as a result of more detailed analysis of their adhesion molecule and chemokine receptor expression. In addition, in gastrointestinal tumors there is an increase in tumor-associated Tregs, but intriguingly, Treg infiltration into colorectal adenocarcinomas is associated with improved prognosis. In this article, we will review the proposed mechanisms of immune suppression by tumor-associated Tregs, how the tumor microenvironment favors immune evasion and Treg induction, the tumor-homing mechanisms of Tregs and how Tregs affect progression of gastric and colorectal tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukanya Raghavan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at The University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
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15
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Yin W, He Q, Hu Z, Chen Z, Qifeng M, Zhichun S, Zhihui Q, Xiaoxia N, Li J, Gao J. A novel therapeutic vaccine of GM-CSF/TNFalpha surface-modified RM-1 cells against the orthotopic prostatic cancer. Vaccine 2010; 28:4937-44. [PMID: 20653081 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.05.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
A novel therapeutic vaccine against prostate cancer was developed by simultaneous immobilization of streptavidin-tagged bioactive GM-CSF and TNFalpha on the biotinylated surface of 30% ethanol-fixed RM-1 prostatic cancer cells. This study showed that the GM-CSF/TNFalpha-doubly surface-modified vaccine significantly extended the survival in the orthotopic model of RM-1 prostate cancer, and was superior to single GM-CSF- or TNFalpha-surface-modified vaccine. Moreover, the splenocytes from the GM-CSF/TNFalpha-vaccine-treated mice showed the most potent cytotoxicity on RM-1 cells and the highest production of RM-1-specific IFNgamma. In addition, more CD4+ and CD8+ T cells infiltrated into the tumor sites in the GM-CSF/TNFalpha-vaccine-treated mice than in the GM-CSF- or TNFalpha-vaccine-treated mice. Therefore, our study demonstrated that the efficacy of RM-1 prostate cancer cell vaccine could be improved by conjugating both GM-CSF and TNFalpha simultaneously on the surface of cancer cells, and that this modification thus has a potential translational significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weihua Yin
- Institute of Biotherapy, School of Biotechnology, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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16
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Ruffell B, DeNardo DG, Affara NI, Coussens LM. Lymphocytes in cancer development: polarization towards pro-tumor immunity. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2009; 21:3-10. [PMID: 20005150 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2009.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The classic view that the role of immune cells in cancer is primarily one of tumor rejection has been supplanted by a more complex view of leukocytes having both pro- and anti-tumor properties. This shift is due to the now well recognized capabilities of several myeloid cell types that foster pro-tumor programming of premalignant tissue, as well as the discovery that subsets of leukocytes also suppress development and effector functions of lymphocytes important for mediating anti-tumor immunity. In this review, we focus on the underappreciated role that T lymphocytes play in promoting tumor development. This includes, in addition to the role of T regulatory cells, a role for natural killer T cells and CD4(+) T helper cells in suppressing anti-tumor immunity and promoting cancer growth and metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Ruffell
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
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17
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Gough MJ, Ruby CE, Redmond WL, Dhungel B, Brown A, Weinberg AD. OX40 Agonist Therapy Enhances CD8 Infiltration and Decreases Immune Suppression in the Tumor. Cancer Res 2008; 68:5206-15. [DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-07-6484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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18
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Gallimore A, Godkin A. Regulatory T cells and tumour immunity - observations in mice and men. Immunology 2008; 123:157-63. [PMID: 18067556 PMCID: PMC2433304 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2007.02748.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2007] [Accepted: 10/05/2007] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
An enormous body of work supports a role for CD4+ CD25+ regulatory cells (Tregs) in shaping the immune response to tumours. Indeed, there is evidence that the cells impede effective tumour immunosurveillance, inhibit vaccine-induced antitumour immune responses and promote tumour progression. Studies exploring the impact of Tregs on tumour development are discussed in the context of manipulating this T-cell population for the purpose of cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Awen Gallimore
- Medical Biochemistry and Immunology, Henry Wellcome Building, Heath Park, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF14 4XN, UK.
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19
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Nitcheu-Tefit J, Dai MS, Critchley-Thorne RJ, Ramirez-Jimenez F, Xu M, Conchon S, Ferry N, Stauss HJ, Vassaux G. Listeriolysin O expressed in a bacterial vaccine suppresses CD4+CD25high regulatory T cell function in vivo. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 179:1532-41. [PMID: 17641019 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.3.1532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CD4(+)CD25(high) regulatory T cells (Treg) protect the host from autoimmune diseases but are also obstacles against cancer therapies. An ideal cancer vaccine would stimulate specific cytotoxic responses and reduce/suppress Treg function. In this study, we showed that Escherichia coli expressing listeriolysin O and OVA (E. coli LLO/OVA) demonstrated remarkable levels of protection against OVA-expressing tumor cells. By contrast, E. coli expressing OVA only (E. coli OVA) showed poor protection. High-avidity OVA-specific CTL were induced in E. coli LLO/OVA-vaccinated mice, and CD8(+) depletion--but not NK cell depletion, abolished the antitumor activity of the E. coli LLO/OVA vaccine. Phenotypic analysis of T cells following vaccination with either vaccine revealed preferential generation of CD44(high)CD62L(low) CD8(+) effector memory T cells over CD44(high)CD62L(high) central memory T cells. Unexpectedly, CD4(+) depletion turned E. coli OVA into a vaccine as effective as E. coli LLO/OVA suggesting that a subset of CD4(+) cells suppressed the CD8(+) T cell-mediated antitumor response. Further depletion experiments demonstrated that these suppressive cells consisted of CD4(+)CD25(high) regulatory T cells. We therefore assessed these vaccines for Treg function and found that although CD4(+)CD25(high) expansion and Foxp3 expression within this population was similar in all groups of mice, Treg cells from E. coli LLO/OVA-vaccinated animals were unable to suppress conventional T cells proliferation. These findings provide the first evidence that LLO expression affects Treg cell function and may have important implications for enhancing antitumor vaccination strategies in humans.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Bacterial Toxins/administration & dosage
- Bacterial Toxins/biosynthesis
- Bacterial Toxins/genetics
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/cytology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Cell Adhesion/immunology
- Cell Proliferation
- Egg Proteins/biosynthesis
- Egg Proteins/genetics
- Egg Proteins/immunology
- Escherichia coli Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Escherichia coli Vaccines/genetics
- Escherichia coli Vaccines/immunology
- Female
- Heat-Shock Proteins/administration & dosage
- Heat-Shock Proteins/biosynthesis
- Heat-Shock Proteins/genetics
- Hemolysin Proteins/administration & dosage
- Hemolysin Proteins/biosynthesis
- Hemolysin Proteins/genetics
- Immunologic Memory
- Injections, Intravenous
- Lung Neoplasms/immunology
- Lung Neoplasms/prevention & control
- Lung Neoplasms/secondary
- Melanoma, Experimental/immunology
- Melanoma, Experimental/metabolism
- Melanoma, Experimental/prevention & control
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Ovalbumin/biosynthesis
- Ovalbumin/genetics
- Ovalbumin/immunology
- Peptide Fragments
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
- Vaccines, Inactivated/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Inactivated/genetics
- Vaccines, Inactivated/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Josianne Nitcheu-Tefit
- Centre for Molecular Oncology, Institute of Cancer, Queen Mary's School of Medicine and Dentistry, London, United Kingdom
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20
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Webster WS, Thompson RH, Harris KJ, Frigola X, Kuntz S, Inman BA, Dong H. Targeting Molecular and Cellular Inhibitory Mechanisms for Improvement of Antitumor Memory Responses Reactivated by Tumor Cell Vaccine. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 179:2860-9. [PMID: 17709500 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.5.2860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Development of effective vaccination approaches to treat established tumors represents a focus of intensive research because such approaches offer the promise of enhancing immune system priming against tumor Ags via restimulation of pre-existing (memory) antitumoral helper and effector immune cells. However, inhibitory mechanisms, which function to limit the recall responses of tumor-specific immunity, remain poorly understood and interfere with therapies anticipated to induce protective immunity. The mouse renal cell carcinoma (RENCA) tumor model was used to investigate variables affecting vaccination outcomes. We demonstrate that although a whole cell irradiated tumor cell vaccine can trigger a functional antitumor memory response in the bone marrows of mice with established tumors, these responses do not culminate in the regression of established tumors. In addition, a CD103+ regulatory T (Treg) cell subset accumulates within the draining lymph nodes of tumor-bearing mice. We also show that B7-H1 (CD274, PD-L1), a negative costimulatory ligand, and CD4+ Treg cells collaborate to impair the recall responses of tumor-specific memory T cells. Specifically, mice bearing large established RENCA tumors were treated with tumor cell vaccination in combination with B7-H1 blockade and CD4+ T cell depletion (triple therapy treatment) and monitored for tumor growth and survival. Triple treatment therapy induced complete regression of large established RENCA tumors and raised long-lasting protective immunity. These results have implications for developing clinical antitumoral vaccination regimens in the setting in which tumors express elevated levels of B7-H1 in the presence of abundant Treg cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Scott Webster
- Department of Urology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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21
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Knutson KL, Disis ML, Salazar LG. CD4 regulatory T cells in human cancer pathogenesis. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2007; 56:271-85. [PMID: 16819631 PMCID: PMC11030088 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-006-0194-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2006] [Accepted: 06/09/2006] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decade, there has been an accelerated understanding of immune regulatory mechanisms. Peripheral immune regulation is linked to a collection of specialized regulatory cells of the CD4(+) T cell lineage (i.e., CD4(+) Tregs). This collection consists of Tregs that are either thymically derived (i.e., natural) or peripherally induced. Tregs are important for controlling potentially autoreactive immune effectors and immunity to foreign organisms and molecules. Their importance in maintaining immune homeostasis and the overall health of an organism is clear. However, Tregs may also be involved in the pathogenesis of malignancies as now compelling evidence shows that tumors induce or recruit CD4(+) Tregs to block immune priming and antitumor effectors. Efforts are underway to develop approaches that specifically inhibit the function of tumor-associated Tregs which could lead to an increased capability of the body's immune system to respond to tumors but without off-target immune-related pathologies (i.e., autoimmune disease). In this review, the biology of human CD4(+) Tregs is discussed along with their involvement in malignancies and emerging strategies to block their function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith L Knutson
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, 342C Guggenheim, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN 55905, USA.
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22
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Lodge A, Yu P, Nicholl MB, Brown IE, Jackson CCA, Schreiber K, Sugg SL, Schreiber H, Shilyansky J. CD40 ligation restores cytolytic T lymphocyte response and eliminates fibrosarcoma in the peritoneum of mice lacking CD4+ T cells. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2006; 55:1542-52. [PMID: 16491399 PMCID: PMC11031076 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-006-0147-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2005] [Accepted: 01/31/2006] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Absence of CD4(+) T cell help has been suggested as a mechanism for failed anti-tumor cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) response. We examined the requirement for CD4(+) T cells to eliminate an immunogenic murine fibrosarcoma (6132A) inoculated into the peritoneal cavity. Immunocompetent C3H mice eliminated both single and repeat intraperitoneal (IP) inoculums, and developed high frequency of 6132A-specific interferon-gamma (IFNgamma)-producing CTL in the peritoneal cavity. Adoptive transfer of peritoneal exudate cells (PEC) isolated from control mice, protected SCID mice from challenge with 6132A. In contrast, CD4 depleted mice had diminished ability to eliminate tumor and succumbed to repeat IP challenges. Mice depleted of CD4(+) T cells lacked tumor-specific IFNgamma producing CTL in the peritoneal cavity. Adoptive transfer of PEC from CD4 depleted mice failed to protect SCID mice from 6132A. However, splenocytes isolated from same CD4 depleted mice prevented tumor growth in SCID mice, suggesting that 6132A-specific CTL response was generated, but was not sustained in the peritoneum. Treating CD4 depleted mice with agonist anti-CD40 antibody, starting on days 3 or 8 after initiating tumor challenge, led to persistence of 6132A-specific IFNgamma producing CTL in the peritoneum, and eliminated 6132A tumor. The findings suggest that CTL can be activated in the absence of CD4(+) T cells, but CD4(+) T cells are required for a persistent CTL response at the tumor site. Exogenous stimulation through CD40 can restore tumor-specific CTL activity to the peritoneum and promote tumor clearance in the absence of CD4(+) T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Lodge
- Department of Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI USA
| | - Ping Yu
- Department of Pathology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL USA
| | | | - Ian E. Brown
- Department of Pathology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL USA
| | | | - Karin Schreiber
- Department of Pathology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL USA
| | - Sonia L. Sugg
- Department of Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI USA
| | - Hans Schreiber
- Department of Pathology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL USA
| | - Joel Shilyansky
- Department of Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI USA
- Division of Pediatric Surgery, Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, 999 N. 92nd street, Milwaukee, WI 53201-1997 USA
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23
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Betts GJ, Clarke SL, Richards HE, Godkin AJ, Gallimore AM. Regulating the immune response to tumours. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2006; 58:948-61. [PMID: 17070961 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2006.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2006] [Accepted: 07/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Naturally occurring regulatory T cells (Tregs) have been shown to suppress immune responses to self-antigens, thereby limiting autoimmunity. In the case of tumours, where immune responses to self-antigens are beneficial and lead to elimination of the tumour, such suppressive activity is actually detrimental to the host. Manipulation of Tregs holds great promise for the immunotherapy of cancer. Several studies performed using rodent models and indicate that Tregs cells inhibit effective anti-tumour immune responses and that their removal promotes tumour rejection. The increasing number of studies of Tregs in patients with cancer also point to a role for these cells in promoting disease progression. This review summarises the findings of these studies and addresses the advantages and potential pitfalls of manipulating Treg activity for the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth J Betts
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Immunology, Cardiff University, Henry Wellcome Building, Heath Park, Cardiff, CF14 4XN, UK
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24
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Knutson KL. Strong-arming immune regulation: suppressing regulatory T-cell function to treat cancers. Future Oncol 2006; 2:379-89. [PMID: 16787118 DOI: 10.2217/14796694.2.3.379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years there has been an accelerated understanding of immune regulatory mechanisms. Much of this immune regulation is linked to a collection of specialized regulatory cells of the T-cell lineage (Tregs). This collection consists of Tregs that are either thymically derived or peripherally induced. Tregs are important for controlling potentially autoreactive immune effectors and immune responses to foreign organisms and molecules. Their importance in maintaining immune homeostasis and the overall health of an organism cannot be overstated. However, there is a dark side, and Tregs may also be involved in the pathogenesis of malignancies. Evidence shows that tumors induce or recruit Tregs to block antitumor effectors. Thus, there are efforts underway to identify approaches that specifically inhibit the function of intratumoral Tregs, which could lead to increased immunity to tumors without off-target immune-related pathologies (i.e., autoimmune disease). In this review, the biology of Tregs is discussed along with their involvement in malignancies and emerging strategies to block their function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith L Knutson
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 342C Guggenheim, 200 First St. SW, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA.
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25
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Viehl CT, Moore TT, Liyanage UK, Frey DM, Ehlers JP, Eberlein TJ, Goedegebuure PS, Linehan DC. Depletion of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells promotes a tumor-specific immune response in pancreas cancer-bearing mice. Ann Surg Oncol 2006; 13:1252-8. [PMID: 16952047 DOI: 10.1245/s10434-006-9015-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2005] [Accepted: 02/13/2006] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pancreas cancer-bearing mice have an increased prevalence of immunosuppressive CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells (T(reg)). Depletion of T(reg) results in smaller tumors and prolonged host survival. The objective of this study was to evaluate the tumor-specific immune response after depletion of T(reg) alone or in combination with a cancer vaccine. METHODS Four groups of C57BL/6 mice were challenged with pancreas adenocarcinoma cells (Pan02). The mice received four combinations of antibody-mediated T(reg) depletion and whole tumor cell vaccination: (1) no treatment, (2) T(reg) depletion only, (3) vaccination only, or (4) T(reg) depletion and vaccination. Splenocytes and lymphocytes from tumor-draining lymph nodes were analyzed for tumor-specific release of interferon gamma by enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot assay. RESULTS In T(reg)-depleted and vaccinated mice, a strong statistical trend toward smaller tumors (P = .05) and longer survival (P = .054) was found compared with untreated mice. T(reg)-depleted mice showed significantly more tumor-specific cells than undepleted mice (P = .02). The number of tumor-specific cells was significantly higher in tumor-draining lymph nodes than in the spleen (P = .002). Similarly, significantly more tumor-specific cells were found in spleens of T(reg)-depleted and vaccinated mice than in vaccinated-only mice (P = .009). CONCLUSIONS Depletion of T(reg) alone or in combination with a whole tumor cell vaccine promotes a tumor-specific immune response. Thus, strategies incorporating T(reg) depletion might improve the efficacy of cancer vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten T Viehl
- Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, Box 8109, 660 S. Euclid Ave., St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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26
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Abstract
Regulatory T-cells (Treg) protect the host from autoimmune disease by suppressing self-reactive immune cells. As such, Treg may also block antitumor immune responses. Recent observations by us and others showed that the prevalence of Treg is increased in cancer patients, particularly in the tumor environment. Our studies in a mouse pancreas cancer model suggest that the tumor actively promotes the accrual of Treg through several mechanisms involving activation of naturally occurring Treg as well as conversion of non-Treg into Treg. Our studies focus on further defining these mechanisms with the ultimate goal of designing strategies that block Treg-mediated suppression in cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Linehan
- Department of Surgery and Alvin J. Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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27
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Abstract
While there is now little debate about the existence or relevance of regulatory populations of T cells to a variety of human diseases, including cancer, there is considerable debate about the ontogeny, phenotype, and mechanisms of action of given regulatory T cell populations. This review will limit itself to discussion to two distinct populations of CD4+ regulatory T cells: T cells co-expressing the CD25 receptor (Tregs), and type 1 regulatory (Tr1) T cells. Attention will be focused on the definition and role of these regulatory T cell populations in human cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare Baecher-Allan
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur NRB 641, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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28
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Abstract
The prognostic significance of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) has been a longstanding topic of debate. In cases where TILs have improved patient outcome, T lymphocytes are recognized as the main effectors of antitumor immune responses. However, recent studies have revealed that a subset of CD4(+) T cells, referred to as CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells (Treg), may accumulate in the tumor environment and suppress tumor-specific T-cell responses, thereby hindering tumor rejection. Hence, predicting tumor behavior on the basis of an indiscriminate evaluation of tumor-infiltrating T cells may result in inconsistent prognostic accuracy. The presence of infiltrating CD4(+)CD25(+) Treg may be detrimental to the host defense against the tumor, while the presence of effector T lymphocytes, including CD8(+) T cells and non-regulatory CD4(+) helper T cells may be beneficial. Enhanced recruitment of antitumor effector T lymphocytes to tumor tissue in addition to inhibition of local Treg, may therefore be an ideal target for improving cancer immunotherapy. This article reviews the antitumor functions of T-lymphocytes, with special attention given to CD4(+) regulatory T-cells within the tumor environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Yu
- 1Department of Pathology and Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.
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29
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Fändrich F. Induction of tolerance in clinical organ transplantation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2006; 21:1170-3. [PMID: 16504976 DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfl055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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30
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Abstract
Regulatory T (Treg) cells induce immune tolerance by suppressing host immune responses against self- or non-self-antigens, thus playing critical roles in preventing autoimmune diseases. However, tumor cells may take advantage of Treg cells to protect themselves from immune attack elicited by vaccines. Recent studies demonstrate the presence of Treg cells in various types of cancers and their suppressive function. Therefore, Treg cells at tumor sites have detrimental effects on immunotherapy directed to cancer and infectious diseases. This review will discuss antigen specificity of Treg cells, the factors that contribute to Treg cell generation and suppressive function, and their regulation through Toll-like receptor signaling. It was generally though that TLR-mediated recognition of specific structures of invading pathogens initiate innate as well as adaptive immune responses through dendritic cells. New evidence suggests that TLR signaling may directly regulate the suppressive function of Treg cells. Linking TLR signaling to the functional control of Treg cells opens intriguing opportunities to shift the balance between CD4(+) T-helper and Treg cells, in ways that may improve the outcome of cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong-Fu Wang
- Center for Cell and Gene Therapy and Department of Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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31
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenn Dranoff
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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32
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Abstract
Regulatory T (Treg) cells induce immune tolerance by suppressing host immune responses against self- or non-self-antigens. Hence, they not only play critical roles in preventing autoimmune diseases, but also may have detrimental effects on vaccines directed to cancer and infectious diseases. Understanding the antigen specificity and functional control of Treg cells will be crucial to the development of effective cancer immunotherapy. This review will discuss different subsets of Treg cells, the factors that contribute to Treg cell generation and suppressive function, and the ability of signaling through Toll-like receptor 8 to reverse the suppressive function of Treg cells. Importantly, this TLR pathway does not depend on interaction with dendritic cells, but operates independently in Treg cells, relying on TLR8 (with MyD88 as its sole receptor-proximal adaptor) to transduce signals generated by TLR8 ligands. Linking TLR signaling to the functional control of Treg cells opens intriguing opportunities to shift the balance between CD4(+) T-helper and Treg cells, in ways that may improve the outcome of cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong-Fu Wang
- The Center for Cell and Gene Therapy and Department of Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, ALKEK Building, N1120, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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33
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Orentas RJ, Kohler ME, Johnson BD. Suppression of anti-cancer immunity by regulatory T cells: back to the future. Semin Cancer Biol 2006; 16:137-49. [PMID: 16376101 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2005.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Suppressor/regulatory T cells were first shown to have an impact on cancer progression in experimental tumor models during the 1970s. However, the lack of specific markers hindered mechanistic investigations, and skepticism grew in the scientific community due to variability in cell populations and reported functions. The identification of regulatory CD4(+)CD25(+) T cells has generated a great deal of renewed interest in cells that have immune regulatory properties. This article will provide a brief historical review of suppressor T cells and cancer, experimental and clinical evidence that CD4(+)CD25(+) natural regulatory T cells play a role in cancer progression, and briefly discuss current strategies to inhibit these cells in an effort to enhance cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rimas J Orentas
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
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34
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Abstract
Naturally occurring CD25(+)CD4(+) regulatory T cells (T(R) cells), which specifically express the transcription factor Foxp3, engage in the maintenance of immunological self-tolerance and suppressive control of aberrant or excessive immune responses to foreign antigens. They may, on the other hand, impede immune surveillance against cancer and hamper the development of effective immunity to autologous tumor cells. Indeed, natural T(R) cells have been observed to predominantly infiltrate tumor masses especially in the early phase of tumor progression. Depletion of natural T(R) cells by removing CD25(+) T cells prior to tumor challenge is therefore able to provoke effective tumor immunity in animals. Furthermore, attenuation of T(R) cell-mediated suppression in on-going anti-tumor immune responses, for example by altering signaling through CTLA-4 or GITR expressed by natural T(R) cells, can enhance the responses and thereby eradicate advanced cancers. A combination of depletion or attenuation of T(R) cells and concomitant stimulation of effector T cells, systemically or locally in tumors, may be a feasible immunotherapy for cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoyuki Yamaguchi
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Institute for Frontier Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
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35
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Nomura T, Sakaguchi S. Naturally arising CD25+CD4+ regulatory T cells in tumor immunity. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2005; 293:287-302. [PMID: 15981485 DOI: 10.1007/3-540-27702-1_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Naturally arising regulatory T (TR) cells, represented by CD25+CD4+ TR cells, play an essential role in maintaining immunological self-tolerance. This T cell-mediated dominant control of the immune response not only inhibits the development of autoimmune disease, but also impedes effective immunosurveillance against autologous tumor cells. Attenuation of TR cell-mediated immune suppression can therefore evoke effective tumor immunity in otherwise nonresponsive animals. This common regulatory mechanism for autoimmunity and tumor immunity can be exploited when devising a novel immunotherapy for cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Nomura
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Institute for Frontier Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Shogoin-Kawahara-Cho, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
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36
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Azukizawa H, Sano S, Kosaka H, Sumikawa Y, Itami S. Prevention of toxic epidermal necrolysis by regulatory T cells. Eur J Immunol 2005; 35:1722-30. [PMID: 15909306 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200425773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
To analyze immunoregulation of autoreactive T cells specific for epidermal skin antigens, we crossed transgenic mice expressing ovalbumin selectively in keratinocytes under the keratin 5 promoter (K5-mOVA) with mice expressing a K(b)-restricted OVA-specific T cell receptor transgene (OT-I). In athymic double-transgenic mice, OT-I cells developed extrathymically and, at 8-12 weeks of age, initiated severe epidermal damage mimicking toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN). In contrast, euthymic double-transgenic mice showed thymic deletion of OT-I cells, had few of these cells in the periphery, and never developed skin changes mimicking TEN. Adoptive transfer of OT-I cells isolated from euthymic double-transgenic mice induced TEN in athymic K5-mOVA single-transgenic mice. This spontaneous disease in athymic double-transgenic mice was prevented by transferring lymph node cells from euthymic mice, but was not prevented when CD4(+) or CD25(+) cells were depleted from this population. Although purified CD4(+)CD25(+) cells scarcely prevented the skin disease induced by adoptive transfer of OT-I cells, they efficiently prevented the disease when co-transferred with CD11c(+) dendritic cells. These results suggested that thymus-derived regulatory T cells cooperate with CD11c(+) dendritic cells to prevent life-threatening skin damage such as TEN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Azukizawa
- Department of Dermatology, Course of Molecular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
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Wang HY, Wang RF. Antigen-specific CD4+ regulatory T cells in cancer: implications for immunotherapy. Microbes Infect 2005; 7:1056-62. [PMID: 15914063 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2005.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2005] [Accepted: 03/25/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Regulatory T cells play essential roles in inducing self-tolerance by suppressing immune responses against self such as autoantigens or non-self-antigens such as tumor and pathogenic antigens. Despite the importance of CD4(+) regulatory T cells in many immune-related diseases, their antigen specificity and suppressive mechanisms remain elusive. This review discusses the natural ligands and their potential roles of tumor-specific CD4(+) regulatory T cells in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Y Wang
- ALKEK Building, N1120, Center for Cell and Gene Therapy and Department of Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Abstract
The identification of suppressor T cells as important regulators of basic processes that are designed to maintain tolerance has opened an important area of potential clinical investigation in autoimmunity, graft-versus-host disease and transplantation. However, the field has been limited by an inability to define the antigenic specificities of these cells and by the small numbers of circulating regulatory T cells. Recently, new methods for expanding polyclonal and antigen-specific regulatory T cells have emerged. This article summarizes efforts to exploit regulatory T-cell therapy for the treatment of immunological diseases and poses the question of when and where regulatory T cells will first impact on clinical diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A Bluestone
- University of California at San Francisco Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, Box 0540, 513 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, California 94143-0540, USA. jbluestdiabetes.ucsf.edu
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Yu P, Lee Y, Liu W, Krausz T, Chong A, Schreiber H, Fu YX. Intratumor depletion of CD4+ cells unmasks tumor immunogenicity leading to the rejection of late-stage tumors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 201:779-91. [PMID: 15753211 PMCID: PMC2212829 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20041684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 334] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Tumor environment can be critical for preventing the immunological destruction of antigenic tumors. We have observed a selective accumulation of CD4(+)CD25(+) T cells inside tumors. In a murine fibrosarcoma L(d)-expressing Ag104, these cells made up the majority of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes at the late stage of tumor progression, and their depletion during the effector phase, rather than priming phase, successfully enhanced antitumor immunity. We show here that CD4(+)CD25(+) T cells suppressed the proliferation and interferon-gamma production of CD8(+) T cells in vivo at the local tumor site. Blockade of the effects of IL-10 and TGF-beta partially reversed the suppression imposed by the CD4(+) cells. Furthermore, local depletion of CD4(+) cells inside the tumor resulted in a change of cytokine milieu and led to the eradication of well-established highly aggressive tumors and the development of long-term antitumor memory. Therefore, CD4(+)CD25(+) T cells maintained an environment in the tumor that concealed the immunogenicity of tumor cells to permit progressive growth of antigenic tumors. Our study illustrates that the suppression of antitumor immunity by regulatory T cells occurs predominantly at the tumor site, and that local reversal of suppression, even at a late stage of tumor development, can be an effective treatment for well-established cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Yu
- The Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.
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Bluestone JA, Tang Q. Therapeutic vaccination using CD4+CD25+ antigen-specific regulatory T cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101 Suppl 2:14622-6. [PMID: 15322272 PMCID: PMC521996 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0405234101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Autoimmune disease results from the dysregulation of basic tolerogenic processes designed to control self/non-self-discrimination. Approaches to treat autoimmunity have focused historically on potent immunosuppressives that block the activation and expansion of antigen-specific T cells before they differentiate into pathogenic T cell responses. These therapies are very efficient in reducing clonal expansion and altering early signaling pathways. However, once the pathogenic responses are established (i.e., autoimmunity), the interventions are less effective on activated and differentiated T cell subsets (including memory T cells) or acting in the presence of an inflammatory milieu to abort immune responses at the target tissue and systemically. Moreover, the current immunotherapies require continuous use because they do not redirect the immune system to a state of tolerance. The continuous treatment leads to long-term toxicities and can profoundly suppress protective immune responses targeted at viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens. Over the past decade, there have been tremendous advances in our understanding of the basic processes that control immune tolerance. Among the most exciting has been the identification of a professional regulatory T cell subset that has shown enormous potential in suppressing pathologic immune responses in autoimmune diseases, transplantation, and graft vs. host disease. In this review, we summarize current efforts to induce and maintain tolerance in the autoimmune diabetes setting by using therapeutic vaccination with CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells. Emphasis will be placed on approaches to exploit regulatory T cells either directly or through the use of anti-CD3 immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A Bluestone
- Diabetes Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0540, USA.
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Chen YL, Chen SH, Wang JY, Yang BC. Fas ligand on tumor cells mediates inactivation of neutrophils. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 171:1183-91. [PMID: 12874204 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.171.3.1183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The expression of Fas ligand (FasL) on tumor cells (tumor FasL) has been implicated in their evasion of immune surveillance. In this study, we investigated the cellular mechanism for FasL-associated immune escape using melanoma B16F10-derived cells as a model. Transfectants carrying FasL-specific ribozymes expressed low levels of FasL (FasL(low) tumor cells) as compared with those carrying enhanced green fluorescent protein-N1 plasmids (FasL(high) tumor cells). When injected s.c. into C57BL/6 mice, FasL(low) tumor cells grew more slowly than did FasL(high) melanoma cells. FasL(high) tumor cells showed more intensive neutrophilic infiltration accompanied by multiple necrotizing areas than did FasL(low) tumor cells. The average size of FasL(low) tumors, but not of FasL(high) tumors, was significantly enhanced in mice depleted of neutrophils. Consistently, a local injection of LPS to recruit/activate neutrophils significantly delayed tumor formation by FasL(low) tumor cells, and slightly retarded that of FasL(high) tumor cells in both C57BL/6 and nonobese diabetic/SCID mice. Neutrophils killed FasL(low) melanoma cells more effectively than FasL(high) melanoma cells in vitro. The resistance of FasL(high) melanoma cells to being killed by neutrophils was correlated with impaired neutrophil activation, as demonstrated by reductions in gelatinase B secretion, reactive oxygen species production, and the surface expression of CD11b and the transcription of FasL. Local transfer of casein-enriched or PMA-treated neutrophils delayed tumor formation by melanoma cells. Taken together, inactivation of neutrophils by tumor FasL is an important mechanism by which tumor cells escape immune attack.
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MESH Headings
- Adoptive Transfer
- Animals
- Cell Division/genetics
- Cell Division/immunology
- Coculture Techniques
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic/genetics
- Fas Ligand Protein
- Immune Sera/administration & dosage
- Immunity, Innate/genetics
- Injections, Intralesional
- Injections, Intraperitoneal
- Injections, Subcutaneous
- Ligands
- Lipopolysaccharides/administration & dosage
- Melanoma, Experimental/genetics
- Melanoma, Experimental/immunology
- Melanoma, Experimental/pathology
- Melanoma, Experimental/prevention & control
- Membrane Glycoproteins/biosynthesis
- Membrane Glycoproteins/physiology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred NOD
- Mice, SCID
- Neoplasm Proteins/physiology
- Neoplasm Transplantation
- Neutropenia/genetics
- Neutropenia/immunology
- Neutrophil Activation/genetics
- Neutrophil Activation/immunology
- Neutrophil Infiltration/genetics
- Neutrophil Infiltration/immunology
- Neutrophils/immunology
- Neutrophils/transplantation
- Transfection
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
- fas Receptor/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ling Chen
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, Republic of China
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43
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Abstract
CD4+ T cells have been shown to be able to affect tumor growth through both direct and indirect means. In addition, a requirement has been demonstrated for CD4+ T cells in the regulation and induction of T cell memory, and CD4+ suppressor T cells have been identified, stressing a role for CD4+ T cells in the induction and maintenance of antitumor immune responses. A review of the involvement of CD4+ T cells at different stages of tumor immunity is provided, and based on these data we discuss how CD4+ T cell response induction could be incorporated into tumor immunotherapy strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markwin P Velders
- Cancer Immunology Program, Cardinal Bernardin Cancer Center, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois 60153, USA
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44
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Sosroseno W, Bird PS, Gemmell E, Seymour GJ. The role of CD4+ cells in vivo on the induction of the immune response to Porphyromonas gingivalis in mice. J Periodontol 2002; 73:1133-40. [PMID: 12416770 DOI: 10.1902/jop.2002.73.10.1133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It has previously been suggested that CD4+ T cells play a pivotal role in regulating the immune response to periodontal pathogens. The aim of the present study therefore was to determine delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH), spleen cell proliferation, serum and splenic anti-Porphyromonas gingivalis antibody levels, and lesion sizes following challenge with viable P. gingivalis in CD4-depleted BALB/c mice immunized with P. gingivalis outer membrane proteins (OMP). METHODS Four groups of BALB/c mice were used. Groups 1 and 2 were injected intraperitoneally (ip) with saline for 3 consecutive days and then weekly throughout the experiment. Groups 3 and 4 were injected ip with rat immunoglobulin and a monoclonal rat anti-mouse CD4 antibody, respectively. Two days later, group 1 mice were injected ip with saline only, while all the other groups were immunized ip with P gingivalis OMP weekly for 3 weeks. One week later following the last immunization of OMP, 3 separate experiments were conducted to determine: 1) the DTH response to P gingivalis OMP by measuring footpad swelling; 2) the levels of antibodies to P gingivalis in serum samples and spleen cell cultures using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, as well as spleen cell proliferation after stimulation with OMP; and 3) the lesion sizes after a subcutaneous challenge with viable P. gingivalis cells. RESULTS In CD4+ T-cell-depleted mice (group 4), the DTH response and antigen-stimulated cell proliferation were significantly suppressed when compared to groups 2 and 3. Similarly, the levels of serum and splenic IgM, IgG, and all IgG subclass antibodies to P. gingivalis OMP were depressed. Delayed healing of P gingivalis-induced lesions was also observed in the CD4+ T-cell-depleted group. CONCLUSIONS This study has shown that depletion of CD4+ T cells prior to immunization with P gingivalis OMP led to the suppression of both the humoral and cell-mediated immune response to this microorganism and that this was associated with delayed healing. These results suggest that the induction of the immune response to P. gingivalis is a CD4+ T-cell-dependent mechanism and that CD4+ T cells are important in the healing process.
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Liyanage UK, Moore TT, Joo HG, Tanaka Y, Herrmann V, Doherty G, Drebin JA, Strasberg SM, Eberlein TJ, Goedegebuure PS, Linehan DC. Prevalence of regulatory T cells is increased in peripheral blood and tumor microenvironment of patients with pancreas or breast adenocarcinoma. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 169:2756-61. [PMID: 12193750 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.169.5.2756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1064] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (T(reg)) that prevent autoimmune diseases by suppression of self-reactive T cells may also suppress the immune response against cancer. In mice, depletion of T(reg) by Ab therapy leads to more efficient tumor rejection. T(reg)-mediated suppression of antitumor immune responses may partly explain the poor clinical response to vaccine-based immunotherapy for human cancer. In this study, we measured the prevalence of T(reg) that coexpress CD4 and CD25 in the PBLs, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, and regional lymph node lymphocytes from 65 patients with either pancreas or breast cancer. In breast cancer patients (n = 35), pancreas cancer patients (n = 30), and normal donors (n = 35), the prevalence of T(reg) were 16.6% (SE 1.22), 13.2% (SE 1.13), and 8.6% (SE 0.71) of the total CD4(+) cells, respectively. The prevalence of T(reg) were significantly higher in breast cancer patients (p < 0.01) and pancreas cancer patients (p < 0.01) when compared with normal donors. In tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and lymph node lymphocytes, the T(reg) prevalence were 20.2% (SE 3.93) and 20.1% (SE 4.3), respectively. T(reg) constitutively coexpressed CTLA-4 and CD45RO markers, and secreted TGF-beta and IL-10 but did not secrete IFN-gamma. When cocultured with activated CD8(+) cells or CD4(+)25(-) cells, T(reg) potently suppressed their proliferation and secretion of IFN-gamma. We conclude that the prevalence of T(reg) is increased in the peripheral blood as well as in the tumor microenvironment of patients with invasive breast or pancreas cancers. These T(reg) may mitigate the immune response against cancer, and may partly explain the poor immune response against tumor Ags.
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MESH Headings
- Abatacept
- Adenocarcinoma/blood
- Adenocarcinoma/immunology
- Adenocarcinoma/metabolism
- Adenocarcinoma/pathology
- Aged
- Antigens, CD
- Antigens, Differentiation/biosynthesis
- Breast Neoplasms/blood
- Breast Neoplasms/immunology
- Breast Neoplasms/metabolism
- Breast Neoplasms/pathology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CTLA-4 Antigen
- Carcinoma, Ductal, Breast/blood
- Carcinoma, Ductal, Breast/immunology
- Carcinoma, Ductal, Breast/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Ductal, Breast/pathology
- Cell Division/immunology
- Cells, Cultured
- Coculture Techniques
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- Cytokines/metabolism
- Down-Regulation/immunology
- Female
- Humans
- Immunoconjugates
- Immunophenotyping
- Interferon-gamma/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interferon-gamma/metabolism
- Leukocyte Common Antigens/biosynthesis
- Lymph Nodes/immunology
- Lymph Nodes/metabolism
- Lymph Nodes/pathology
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Lymphocyte Count
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/metabolism
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/pathology
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Pancreatic Neoplasms/blood
- Pancreatic Neoplasms/immunology
- Pancreatic Neoplasms/metabolism
- Pancreatic Neoplasms/pathology
- Receptors, Interleukin-2/biosynthesis
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/cytology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/pathology
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/cytology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/pathology
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Affiliation(s)
- Udaya K Liyanage
- Alvin J. Siteman Cancer Center, Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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Gorelik L, Flavell RA. Immune-mediated eradication of tumors through the blockade of transforming growth factor-beta signaling in T cells. Nat Med 2001; 7:1118-22. [PMID: 11590434 DOI: 10.1038/nm1001-1118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 566] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Despite the existence of tumor-specific antigens and demonstrated presence of tumor-specific immune cells, the majority of tumors manage to avoid immune-mediated destruction. Various mechanisms have been suggested for tumor evasion from immune response. One such mechanism is thought to be mediated by transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), an immunosuppressive cytokine found at the site of most tumors. We demonstrate here that T-cell-specific blockade of TGF-beta signaling allows the generation of an immune response capable of eradicating tumors in mice challenged with live tumor cells. In addition, we provide mechanisms through which abrogation of TGF-beta signaling leads to the enhancement of anti-tumor immunity. Our data indicate that T-cell-specific blockade of TGF-beta signaling has strong therapeutic potential to shift the balance of the immune response in favor of anti-tumor immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Gorelik
- Section of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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Sakaguchi S, Takahashi T, Yamazaki S, Kuniyasu Y, Itoh M, Sakaguchi N, Shimizu J. Immunologic self tolerance maintained by T-cell-mediated control of self-reactive T cells: implications for autoimmunity and tumor immunity. Microbes Infect 2001; 3:911-8. [PMID: 11564439 DOI: 10.1016/s1286-4579(01)01452-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
T-cell-mediated dominant control of self-reactive T cells is one mechanism for maintaining immunologic self tolerance. It also hampers the generation of immunity to autologous tumor cells. Abrogation of the control can evoke potent tumor immunity as well as autoimmunity in normal animals. This common regulatory mechanism for autoimmunity and tumor immunity can be exploited to devise a novel immunotherapy against cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Sakaguchi
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Institute for Frontier Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Shogoin Kawaharacho 53, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan.
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Nagai H, Hara I, Horikawa T, Oka M, Kamidono S, Ichihashi M. Elimination of CD4(+) T cells enhances anti-tumor effect of locally secreted interleukin-12 on B16 mouse melanoma and induces vitiligo-like coat color alteration. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 115:1059-64. [PMID: 11121142 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2000.00156.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
CD4(+) T cells have been reported to suppress immunity against cancer in certain animal models. In this study, we investigated the role of CD4(+) T cells in the anti-tumor immune response when interleukin-12-producing melanoma cells are inoculated in mice. We found that interleukin-12-transfected B16 melanoma showed retarded tumor growth in syngeneic mice; however, all the mice developed tumors eventually. In vivo depletion of CD4(+) T cells led to complete regression of B16/interleukin-12 tumors in 12 of 20 mice (60%). Immunohistochemical analyses revealed that a number of CD8(+) T cells accumulated in close proximity to the B16/interleukin-12 tumors in the CD4(+) T cell-depleted mice, whereas CD8(+) T cells were only scarcely observed at the periphery of the tumors in control immunocompetent mice. Furthermore, 10 of 20 mice treated with both B16/interleukin-12 inoculation and CD4(+) T cell depletion exhibited vitiligo-like coat color alteration. B16/interleukin-12 tumors completely regressed in all the mice with vitiligo. Histologic examination showed that CD8(+) lymphocytes accumulated around the hair bulbs of mice with vitiligo, but not in those without vitiligo. These results suggest that CD4(+) T cells have an inhibitory effect on tumor rejection by suppressing cytotoxic CD8(+) T cells in this melanoma loading model with local interleukin-12 secretion. To investigate the mechanism of enhanced anti-tumor effects by CD4(+) T cell depletion, we examined the T helper type 1/2 cytokine profile in the tumor draining lymph nodes of B16/interleukin-12-bearing mice with or without CD4(+) T cell depletion using the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction method. We found that CD4(+) T cell depletion eliminated T helper type 2 cells and resulted in a T helper type 1-dominant cytokine profile in tumor draining lymph nodes. We emphasize that this T helper type 1-dominant cytokine profile may generate further activated CD8(+) T cells against B16 melanoma cells, lead B16/interleukin-12 to regress, and result in the destruction of the melanocytes in hair bulbs due to cross-antigenicity between both cell types. This mouse model not only demonstrates the depletion of CD4(+) T cells as a useful strategy for cancer gene therapy with interleukin-12 but also provides a model for human melanoma-associated vitiligo.J Invest Dermatol 115:1059-1064 2000
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Affiliation(s)
- H Nagai
- Department of Dermatology, Kobe University School of Medicine, Kobe, Japan.
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Schreiber H, Wu TH, Nachman J, Rowley DA. Immunological enhancement of primary tumor development and its prevention. Semin Cancer Biol 2000; 10:351-7. [PMID: 11100883 DOI: 10.1006/scbi.2000.0331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
While it has been known for decades that the growth of tumor transplants can be enhanced immunologically, the potential significance of these previous findings to the development of primary tumors and the mechanisms of tumor enhancement has remained obscure. This review will summarize recent experiments indicating that primary tumor development can be enhanced by active immunization. The evidence suggests that antibodies, B cells and CD4+ T cells can play a critical role in enhancing the development of primary, tumors, whereas endogenous interferon-gamma (IFNgamma) can counteract enhancement. Thus, we envision two possible functions of IFNgamma: (i) preventing B cell and antibody enhancement and (ii) counteracting tumor promotion independent of T and B cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Schreiber
- Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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50
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Thorbecke GJ, Ponzio NM. Reverse immune surveillance: an adaptive mechanism used by tumor cells to facilitate their survival and growth. Semin Cancer Biol 2000; 10:327-30. [PMID: 11100879 DOI: 10.1006/scbi.2000.0350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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