Positive charges at the intracellular mouth of the pore regulate anion conduction in the CFTR chloride channel

Effects of TRPC1's Lysines on Heteromeric TRPC5-TRPC1 Channel Function

BACKGROUND

TRPC5 proteins form plasma membrane cation channels and are expressed in the nervous and cardiovascular systems. TRPC5 activation leads to cell depolarization and increases neuronal excitability, whereas a homologous TRPC1 inhibits TRPC5 function via heteromerization. The mechanism underlying the inhibitory effect of TRPC1 in TRPC5/TRPC1 heteromers remains unknown.

METHODS

We used electrophysiological techniques to examine the roles of subunit stoichiometry and positively charged luminal residues of TRPC1 on TRPC5/TRPC1 function. We also performed molecular dynamics simulations.

RESULTS

We found that increasing the relative amount of TRPC1 in TRPC5/TRPC1 heteromers reduced histamine-induced cation influx through the heteromeric channels. Consistently, histamine-induced cation influx was small in cells co-expressing TRPC5-TRPC1 concatemers and TRPC1, and large in cells co-expressing TRPC5-TRPC1 concatemers and TRPC5. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that the TRPC1 protein has two positively charged lysine residues that are facing the heteromeric channel pore lumen. Substitution of these lysines with asparagines decreased TRPC1's inhibitory effect on TRPC5/TRPC1 function, indicating that these lysines may regulate cation influx through TRPC5/TRPC1 heteromers. Additionally, we established that extracellular Mg2+ inhibits cation influx through TRPC5/TRPC1, contributing to channel regulation.

CONCLUSIONS

We revealed that the inhibitory effect of TRPC1 on heteromeric TRPC5/TRPC1 function likely involves luminal lysines of TRPC1.

Structural identification of a selectivity filter in CFTR

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is a chloride channel that regulates transepithelial salt and fluid homeostasis. CFTR dysfunction leads to reduced chloride secretion into the mucosal lining of epithelial tissues, thereby causing the inherited disease cystic fibrosis. Although several structures of CFTR are available, our understanding of the ion-conduction pathway is incomplete. In particular, the route that connects the cytosolic vestibule with the extracellular space has not been clearly defined, and the structure of the open pore remains elusive. Furthermore, although many residues have been implicated in altering the selectivity of CFTR, the structure of the "selectivity filter" has yet to be determined. In this study, we identify a chloride-binding site at the extracellular ends of transmembrane helices 1, 6, and 8, where a dehydrated chloride is coordinated by residues G103, R334, F337, T338, and Y914. Alterations to this site, consistent with its function as a selectivity filter, affect ion selectivity, conductance, and open channel block. This selectivity filter is accessible from the cytosol through a large inner vestibule and opens to the extracellular solvent through a narrow portal. The identification of a chloride-binding site at the intra- and extracellular bridging point leads us to propose a complete conductance path that permits dehydrated chloride ions to traverse the lipid bilayer.

Molecular dynamics study of Cl- permeation through cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR)

The recent elucidation of atomistic structures of Cl^- channel CFTR provides opportunities for understanding the molecular basis of cystic fibrosis. Despite having been activated through phosphorylation and provided with ATP ligands, several near-atomistic cryo-EM structures of CFTR are in a closed state, as inferred from the lack of a continuous passage through a hydrophobic bottleneck region located in the extracellular portion of the pore. Here, we present repeated, microsecond-long molecular dynamics simulations of human CFTR solvated in a lipid bilayer and aqueous NaCl. At equilibrium, Cl^- ions enter the channel through a lateral intracellular portal and bind to two distinct cationic sites inside the channel pore but do not traverse the narrow, de-wetted bottleneck. Simulations conducted in the presence of a strong hyperpolarizing electric field led to spontaneous Cl^- translocation events through the bottleneck region of the channel, suggesting that the protein relaxed to a functionally open state. Conformational changes of small magnitude involving transmembrane helices 1 and 6 preceded ion permeation through diverging exit routes at the extracellular end of the pore. The pore bottleneck undergoes wetting prior to Cl^- translocation, suggesting that it acts as a hydrophobic gate. Although permeating Cl^- ions remain mostly hydrated, partial dehydration occurs at the binding sites and in the bottleneck. The observed Cl^- pathway is largely consistent with the loci of mutations that alter channel conductance, anion binding, and ion selectivity, supporting the model of the open state of CFTR obtained in the present study.

The molecular evolution of function in the CFTR chloride channel

The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily includes many proteins of clinical relevance, with genes expressed in all domains of life. Although most members use the energy of ATP binding and hydrolysis to accomplish the active import or export of various substrates across membranes, the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is the only known animal ABC transporter that functions primarily as an ion channel. Defects in CFTR, which is closely related to ABCC subfamily members that bear function as bona fide transporters, underlie the lethal genetic disease cystic fibrosis. This article seeks to integrate structural, functional, and genomic data to begin to answer the critical question of how the function of CFTR evolved to exhibit regulated channel activity. We highlight several examples wherein preexisting features in ABCC transporters were functionally leveraged as is, or altered by molecular evolution, to ultimately support channel function. This includes features that may underlie (1) construction of an anionic channel pore from an anionic substrate transport pathway, (2) establishment and tuning of phosphoregulation, and (3) optimization of channel function by specialized ligand–channel interactions. We also discuss how divergence and conservation may help elucidate the pharmacology of important CFTR modulators.

Two positively charged amino acid side-chains in the inner vestibule of the CFTR channel pore play analogous roles in controlling anion binding and anion conductance

Positively charged amino acid side-chains play important roles in anion binding and permeation through the CFTR chloride channel. One pore-lining lysine residue in particular (K95) has been shown to be indispensable for anion binding, conductance, and selectivity. Here, we use functional investigation of CFTR to show that a nearby arginine (R134) plays a functionally analogous role. Removal of this positive charge (in the R134Q mutant) drastically reduces single-channel conductance, weakens binding of both permeant and blocking anions, and abolishes the normal anion conductance selectivity pattern. Each of these functional effects was reversed by a second-site mutation (S1141K) that introduces an ectopic positive charge to a nearby pore-lining residue. Substituted cysteine accessibility experiments confirm that R134-but not nearby residues in the same transmembrane helix-is accessible within the pore lumen. These results suggest that K95 and R134, which are very close together within the inner vestibule of the pore, play analogous, important roles, and that both are required for the normal anion binding and anion conductance properties of the pore. Nevertheless, that fact that both positive charges can be "transplanted" to other sites in the inner vestibule with little effect on channel permeation properties indicates that it is the overall number of charges-rather than their exact locations-that controls pore function.

Strategies for cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator inhibition: from molecular mechanisms to treatment for secretory diarrhoeas

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is an unusual ABC transporter. It acts as an anion‐selective channel that drives osmotic fluid transport across many epithelia. In the gut, CFTR is crucial for maintaining fluid and acid‐base homeostasis, and its activity is tightly controlled by multiple neuro‐endocrine factors. However, microbial toxins can disrupt this intricate control mechanism and trigger protracted activation of CFTR. This results in the massive faecal water loss, metabolic acidosis and dehydration that characterize secretory diarrhoeas, a major cause of malnutrition and death of children under 5 years of age. Compounds that inhibit CFTR could improve emergency treatment of diarrhoeal disease. Drawing on recent structural and functional insight, we discuss how existing CFTR inhibitors function at the molecular and cellular level. We compare their mechanisms of action to those of inhibitors of related ABC transporters, revealing some unexpected features of drug action on CFTR. Although challenges remain, especially relating to the practical effectiveness of currently available CFTR inhibitors, we discuss how recent technological advances might help develop therapies to better address this important global health need.

Discovering the chloride pathway in the CFTR channel

Cystic fibrosis (CF), a lethal monogenic disease, is caused by pathogenic variants of the CFTR chloride channel. The majority of CF mutations affect protein folding and stability leading overall to diminished apical anion conductance of epithelial cells. The recently published cryo-EM structures of full-length human and zebrafish CFTR provide a good model to gain insight into structure-function relationships of CFTR variants. Although, some of the structures were determined in the phosphorylated and ATP-bound active state, none of the static structures showed an open pathway for chloride permeation. Therefore, we performed molecular dynamics simulations to generate a conformational ensemble of the protein and used channel detecting algorithms to identify conformations with an opened channel. Our simulations indicate a main intracellular entry at TM4/6, a secondary pore at TM10/12, and a bottleneck region involving numerous amino acids from TM1, TM6, and TM12 in accordance with experiments. Since chloride ions entered the pathway in our equilibrium simulations, but did not traverse the bottleneck region, we performed metadynamics simulations, which revealed two possible exits. One of the chloride ions exits includes hydrophobic lipid tails that may explain the lipid-dependency of CFTR function. In summary, our in silico study provides a detailed description of a potential chloride channel pathway based on a recent cryo-EM structure and may help to understand the gating of the CFTR chloride channel, thus contributing to novel strategies to rescue dysfunctional mutants.

Electrostatic Tuning of Anion Attraction from the Cytoplasm to the Pore of the CFTR Chloride Channel

Anions enter from the cytoplasm into the channel pore of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) Cl^- channel not via a central pathway but via a single lateral portal or fenestration. High Cl^- conductance is dependent on electrostatic attraction of cytoplasmic Cl^- ions by four positively charged amino acid side-chains located within this portal. Here we use a mutagenic approach to investigate the functional effects of transplanting or supplementing these positive charges at nearby portal-lining sites. Using patch clamp recording, we find that the functionally important positive charges at K190 and R303 can be transplanted to four nearby sites (N186, L197, W356, and A367) with little loss of Cl^- conductance. Introduction of additional positive charge at these sites had almost no effect on Cl^- conductance, but did increase the sensitivity to channel block by intracellular suramin and Pt(NO₂)₄^2- anions. We suggest that it is the number of positive charges within the portal, rather than their exact location, that is the most important factor influencing Cl^- conductance. The portal appears well optimized in terms of charge distribution to maximize Cl^- conductance.

Functional characterization reveals that zebrafish CFTR prefers to occupy closed channel conformations

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), the culprit behind the genetic disease cystic fibrosis (CF), is a phosphorylation-activated, but ATP-gated anion channel. Studies of human CFTR over the past two decades have provided an in-depth understanding of how CFTR works as an ion channel despite its structural resemblance to ABC transporters. Recently-solved cryo-EM structures of unphosphorylated human and zebrafish CFTR (hCFTR and zCFTR), as well as phosphorylated ATP-bound zebrafish and human CFTR offer an unprecedented opportunity to understand CFTR's function at a molecular level. Interestingly, despite millions of years of phylogenetic distance between human and zebrafish, the structures of zCFTR and hCFTR exhibit remarkable similarities. In the current study, we characterized biophysical and pharmacological properties of zCFTR with the patch-clamp technique, and showed surprisingly very different functional properties between these two orthologs. First, while hCFTR has a single-channel conductance of 8.4 pS with a linear I-V curve, zCFTR shows an inwardly-rectified I-V relationship with a single-channel conductance of ~3.5 pS. Second, single-channel gating behaviors of phosphorylated zCFTR are very different from those of hCFTR, featuring a very low open probability Po (0.03 ± 0.02, vs. ~0.50 for hCFTR) with exceedingly long closed events and brief openings. In addition, unlike hCFTR where each open burst is clearly defined with rare short-lived flickery closures, the open bursts of zCFTR are not easily resolved. Third, although abolishing ATP hydrolysis by replacing the catalytic glutamate with glutamine (i.e., E1372Q) drastically prolongs the open bursts defined by the macroscopic relaxation analysis in zCFTR, the Po within a "locked-open" burst of E1372Q-zCFTR is only ~ 0.35 (vs. Po > 0.94 in E1371Q-hCFTR). Collectively, our data not only provide a reasonable explanation for the unexpected closed-state structure of phosphorylated E1372Q-zCFTR with a canonical ATP-bound dimer of the nucleotide binding domains (NBDs), but also implicate significant structural and functional differences between these two evolutionarily distant orthologs.

Molecular structure of the ATP-bound, phosphorylated human CFTR

Mutations in cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) cause cystic fibrosis, a lethal genetic disease occurring in people of northern European descent. Decades of study have been directed toward a molecular understanding of this ion channel. The structure presented here enables a direct correlation of structure with function, most of which has been characterized in human CFTR.

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is an anion channel important in maintaining proper functions of the lung, pancreas, and intestine. The activity of CFTR is regulated by ATP and protein kinase A-dependent phosphorylation. To understand the conformational changes elicited by phosphorylation and ATP binding, we present here the structure of phosphorylated, ATP-bound human CFTR, determined by cryoelectron microscopy to 3.2-Å resolution. This structure reveals the position of the R domain after phosphorylation. By comparing the structures of human CFTR and zebrafish CFTR determined under the same condition, we identified common features essential to channel gating. The differences in their structures indicate plasticity permitted in evolution to achieve the same function. Finally, the structure of CFTR provides a better understanding of why the G178R, R352Q, L927P, and G970R/D mutations would impede conformational changes of CFTR and lead to cystic fibrosis.

Structural mechanisms of CFTR function and dysfunction

Hwang et al. integrate new structural insights with prior functional studies to reveal the functional anatomy of CFTR chloride channels.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) chloride channel plays a critical role in regulating transepithelial movement of water and electrolyte in exocrine tissues. Malfunction of the channel because of mutations of the cftr gene results in CF, the most prevalent lethal genetic disease among Caucasians. Recently, the publication of atomic structures of CFTR in two distinct conformations provides, for the first time, a clear overview of the protein. However, given the highly dynamic nature of the interactions among CFTR’s various domains, better understanding of the functional significance of these structures requires an integration of these new structural insights with previously established biochemical/biophysical studies, which is the goal of this review.

Functional organization of cytoplasmic portals controlling access to the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) chloride channel pore

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is a Cl^- channel that apparently has evolved from an ancestral active transporter. Key to the CFTR's switch from pump to channel function may have been the appearance of one or more "lateral portals." Such portals connect the cytoplasm to the transmembrane channel pore, allowing a continuous pathway for the electrodiffusional movement of Cl^- ions. However, these portals remain the least well-characterized part of the Cl^- transport pathway; even the number of functional portals is uncertain, and if multiple portals do exist, their relative functional contributions are unknown. Here, we used patch-clamp recording to identify the contributions of positively charged amino acid side chains located in CFTR's cytoplasmic transmembrane extensions to portal function. Mutagenesis-mediated neutralization of several charged side chains reduced single-channel Cl^- conductance. However, these same mutations differentially affected channel blockade by cytoplasmic suramin and Pt(NO₂)₄^2- anions. We considered and tested several models by which the contribution of these positively charged side chains to one or more independent or non-independent portals to the pore could affect Cl^- conductance and interactions with blockers. Overall, our results suggest the existence of a single portal that is lined by several positively charged side chains that interact electrostatically with both Cl^- and blocking anions. We further propose that mutations at other sites indirectly alter the function of this single portal. Comparison of our functional results with recent structural information on CFTR completes our picture of the overall molecular architecture of the Cl^- permeation pathway.

Epithelial transport in The Journal of General Physiology

JGP hosts key papers that shaped the epithelial transport field.

Epithelia define the boundaries of the body and often transfer solutes and water from outside to inside (absorption) or from inside to outside (secretion). Those processes involve dual plasma membranes with different transport components that interact with each other. Understanding those functions has entailed breaking down the problem to analyze properties of individual membranes (apical vs. basolateral) and individual transport proteins. It also requires understanding of how those components interact and how they are regulated. This article outlines the modern history of this research as reflected by publications in The Journal of General Physiology.

Transmembrane helical interactions in the CFTR channel pore

Mutations in the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) gene affect CFTR protein biogenesis or its function as a chloride channel, resulting in dysregulation of epithelial fluid transport in the lung, pancreas and other organs in cystic fibrosis (CF). Development of pharmaceutical strategies to treat CF requires understanding of the mechanisms underlying channel function. However, incomplete 3D structural information on the unique ABC ion channel, CFTR, hinders elucidation of its functional mechanism and correction of cystic fibrosis causing mutants. Several CFTR homology models have been developed using bacterial ABC transporters as templates but these have low sequence similarity to CFTR and are not ion channels. Here, we refine an earlier model in an outward (OWF) and develop an inward (IWF) facing model employing an integrated experimental-molecular dynamics simulation (200 ns) approach. Our IWF structure agrees well with a recently solved cryo-EM structure of a CFTR IWF state. We utilize cysteine cross-linking to verify positions and orientations of residues within trans-membrane helices (TMHs) of the OWF conformation and to reconstruct a physiologically relevant pore structure. Comparison of pore profiles of the two conformations reveal a radius sufficient to permit passage of hydrated Cl- ions in the OWF but not the IWF model. To identify structural determinants that distinguish the two conformations and possible rearrangements of TMHs within them responsible for channel gating, we perform cross-linking by bifunctional reagents of multiple predicted pairs of cysteines in TMH 6 and 12 and 6 and 9. To determine whether the effects of cross-linking on gating observed are the result of switching of the channel from open to close state, we also treat the same residue pairs with monofunctional reagents in separate experiments. Both types of reagents prevent ion currents indicating that pore blockage is primarily responsible.

Molecular Structure of the Human CFTR Ion Channel

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter that uniquely functions as an ion channel. Here, we present a 3.9 Å structure of dephosphorylated human CFTR without nucleotides, determined by electron cryomicroscopy (cryo-EM). Close resemblance of this human CFTR structure to zebrafish CFTR under identical conditions reinforces its relevance for understanding CFTR function. The human CFTR structure reveals a previously unresolved helix belonging to the R domain docked inside the intracellular vestibule, precluding channel opening. By analyzing the sigmoid time course of CFTR current activation, we propose that PKA phosphorylation of the R domain is enabled by its infrequent spontaneous disengagement, which also explains residual ATPase and gating activity of dephosphorylated CFTR. From comparison with MRP1, a feature distinguishing CFTR from all other ABC transporters is the helix-loop transition in transmembrane helix 8, which likely forms the structural basis for CFTR's channel function.

Atomic Structure of the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is an anion channel evolved from the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter family. In this study, we determined the structure of zebrafish CFTR in the absence of ATP by electron cryo-microscopy to 3.7 Å resolution. Human and zebrafish CFTR share 55% sequence identity, and 42 of the 46 cystic-fibrosis-causing missense mutational sites are identical. In CFTR, we observe a large anion conduction pathway lined by numerous positively charged residues. A single gate near the extracellular surface closes the channel. The regulatory domain, dephosphorylated, is located in the intracellular opening between the two nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs), preventing NBD dimerization and channel opening. The structure also reveals why many cystic-fibrosis-causing mutations would lead to defects either in folding, ion conduction, or gating and suggests new avenues for therapeutic intervention.

Electrostatic tuning of the pre- and post-hydrolytic open states in CFTR

Gating of the CFTR channel is coupled to ATP hydrolysis such that two open states can be identified under certain conditions. Zhang and Hwang find that pore-lining mutations differentially affect the permeation properties of these open states and suggest that the internal vestibule expands upon ATP hydrolysis.

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is an ion channel that couples adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis at its nucleotide-binding domains to gating transitions in its transmembrane domains. We previously reported that the charge-neutralized mutant R352C shows two distinct open states, O₁ and O₂. The two states could be distinguished by their single-channel current amplitudes: O₁ having a smaller amplitude (representing a prehydrolytic open state) and O₂ having a larger amplitude (representing a post-hydrolytic open state). In this study, a similar phenotype is described for two mutations of another pore-lining residue, N306D and N306E, suggesting that alterations of the net charge within CFTR’s pore confer this unique conductance aberration. Because moving either of the two endogenous charges, R303 and R352, to positions further along TM5 and TM6, respectively, also results in this O₁O₂ phenotype, we conclude that the position of the charged residue in the internal vestibule affects hydrolysis-dependent conductance changes. Furthermore, our data show that the buffer and CFTR blocker morpholino propane sulfonic acid (MOPS⁻) occludes the O₁ state more than it does the O₂ state when the net charge of the internal vestibule is unchanged or increased. In contrast, when the net charge in the internal vestibule is decreased, the differential sensitivity to MOPS⁻ block is diminished. We propose a three-state blocking mechanism to explain the charge-dependent sensitivity of prehydrolytic and post-hydrolytic open states to MOPS⁻ block. We further posit that the internal vestibule expands during the O₁ to O₂ transition so that mutation-induced electrostatic perturbations within the pore are amplified by the smaller internal vestibule of the O₁ state and thus result in the O₁O₂ phenotype and the charge-dependent sensitivity of the two open states to MOPS⁻ block. Our study not only relates the O₁O₂ phenotype to the charge distribution in CFTR’s internal vestibule but also provides a toolbox for mechanistic studies of CFTR gating by ATP hydrolysis.

Architecture and functional properties of the CFTR channel pore

The main function of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is as an ion channel for the movement of small anions across epithelial cell membranes. As an ion channel, CFTR must form a continuous pathway across the cell membrane-referred to as the channel pore-for the rapid electrodiffusional movement of ions. This review summarizes our current understanding of the architecture of the channel pore, as defined by electrophysiological analysis and molecular modeling studies. This includes consideration of the characteristic functional properties of the pore, definition of the overall shape of the entire extent of the pore, and discussion of how the molecular structure of distinct regions of the pore might control different facets of pore function. Comparisons are drawn with closely related proteins that are not ion channels, and also with structurally unrelated proteins with anion channel function. A simple model of pore function is also described.

Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR): CLOSED AND OPEN STATE CHANNEL MODELS

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is a member of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily. CFTR controls the flow of anions through the apical membrane of epithelia. Dysfunctional CFTR causes the common lethal genetic disease cystic fibrosis. Transitions between open and closed states of CFTR are regulated by ATP binding and hydrolysis on the cytosolic nucleotide binding domains, which are coupled with the transmembrane (TM) domains forming the pathway for anion permeation. Lack of structural data hampers a global understanding of CFTR and thus the development of "rational" approaches directly targeting defective CFTR. In this work, we explored possible conformational states of the CFTR gating cycle by means of homology modeling. As templates, we used structures of homologous ABC transporters, namely TM(287-288), ABC-B10, McjD, and Sav1866. In the light of published experimental results, structural analysis of the transmembrane cavity suggests that the TM(287-288)-based CFTR model could correspond to a commonly occupied closed state, whereas the McjD-based model could represent an open state. The models capture the important role played by Phe-337 as a filter/gating residue and provide structural information on the conformational transition from closed to open channel.

The Fifth Transmembrane Segment of Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator Contributes to Its Anion Permeation Pathway

Previous studies have identified several transmembrane segments (TMs), including TM1, TM3, TM6, TM9, TM11, and TM12, as pore-lining segments in cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), but the role of TM5 in pore construction remains controversial. In this study, we employed substituted cysteine accessibility methodology (SCAM) to screen the entire TM5 defined by the original topology model and its cytoplasmic extension in a Cysless background. We found six positions (A299, R303, N306, S307, F310, and F311) where engineered cysteines react to intracellular 2-sulfonatoethyl methanethiosulfonate (MTSES⁻). Quantification of the modification rate of engineered cysteines in the presence or absence of ATP suggests that these six residues are accessible in both the open and closed states. Whole-cell experiments with external MTSES⁻ identified only two positive positions (L323 and A326), resulting in a segment containing 11 consecutive amino acids, where substituted cysteines respond to neither internal nor external MTSES⁻, a unique feature not seen previously in CFTR's pore-lining segments. The observation that these positions are inaccessible to channel-permeant thiol-specific reagent [Au(CN)₂]⁻ suggests that this segment of TM5 between F311 and L323 is concealed from the pore by other TMs and/or lipid bilayers. In addition, our data support the idea that the positively charged arginine at position 303 poses a pure electrostatic action in determining the single-channel current amplitude of CFTR and the effect of an open-channel blocker glibencalmide. Collectively, we conclude that the cytoplasmic portion of CFTR's TM5 lines the pore. Our functional data are remarkably consistent with predicted structural arrangements of TM5 in some homology models of CFTR.

Functional Architecture of the Cytoplasmic Entrance to the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator Chloride Channel Pore

As an ion channel, the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator must form a continuous pathway for the movement of Cl(-) and other anions between the cytoplasm and the extracellular solution. Both the structure and the function of the membrane-spanning part of this pathway are well defined. In contrast, the structure of the pathway that connects the cytoplasm to the membrane-spanning regions is unknown, and functional roles for different parts of the protein forming this pathway have not been described. We used patch clamp recording and substituted cysteine accessibility mutagenesis to identify positively charged amino acid side chains that attract cytoplasmic Cl(-) ions to the inner mouth of the pore. Our results indicate that the side chains of Lys-190, Arg-248, Arg-303, Lys-370, Lys-1041, and Arg-1048, located in different intracellular loops of the protein, play important roles in the electrostatic attraction of Cl(-) ions. Mutation and covalent modification of these residues have charge-dependent effects on the rate of Cl(-) permeation, demonstrating their functional role in maximization of Cl(-) flux. Other nearby positively charged side chains were not involved in electrostatic interactions with Cl(-). The location of these Cl(-)-attractive residues suggests that cytoplasmic Cl(-) ions enter the pore via a lateral portal located between the cytoplasmic extensions to the fourth and sixth transmembrane helices; a secondary, functionally less relevant portal might exist between the extensions to the 10th and 12th transmembrane helices. These results define the cytoplasmic mouth of the pore and show how it attracts Cl(-) ions from the cytoplasm.

Impact of the F508del mutation on ovine CFTR, a Cl- channel with enhanced conductance and ATP-dependent gating

KEY POINTS

Malfunction of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), a gated pathway for chloride movement, causes the common life-shortening genetic disease cystic fibrosis (CF). Towards the development of a sheep model of CF, we have investigated the function of sheep CFTR. We found that sheep CFTR was noticeably more active than human CFTR, while the most common CF mutation, F508del, had reduced impact on sheep CFTR function. Our results demonstrate that subtle changes in protein structure have marked effects on CFTR function and the consequences of the CF mutation F508del.

ABSTRACT

Cross-species comparative studies are a powerful approach to understanding the epithelial Cl(-) channel cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), which is defective in the genetic disease cystic fibrosis (CF). Here, we investigate the single-channel behaviour of ovine CFTR and the impact of the most common CF mutation, F508del-CFTR, using excised inside-out membrane patches from transiently transfected CHO cells. Like human CFTR, ovine CFTR formed a weakly inwardly rectifying Cl(-) channel regulated by PKA-dependent phosphorylation, inhibited by the open-channel blocker glibenclamide. However, for three reasons, ovine CFTR was noticeably more active than human CFTR. First, single-channel conductance was increased. Second, open probability was augmented because the frequency and duration of channel openings were increased. Third, with enhanced affinity and efficacy, ATP more strongly stimulated ovine CFTR channel gating. Consistent with these data, the CFTR modulator phloxine B failed to potentiate ovine CFTR Cl(-) currents. Similar to its impact on human CFTR, the F508del mutation caused a temperature-sensitive folding defect, which disrupted ovine CFTR protein processing and reduced membrane stability. However, the F508del mutation had reduced impact on ovine CFTR channel gating in contrast to its marked effects on human CFTR. We conclude that ovine CFTR forms a regulated Cl(-) channel with enhanced conductance and ATP-dependent channel gating. This phylogenetic analysis of CFTR structure and function demonstrates that subtle changes in structure have pronounced effects on channel function and the consequences of the CF mutation F508del.

Conformational changes opening and closing the CFTR chloride channel: insights from cysteine scanning mutagenesis

Cystic fibrosis, the most common lethal genetic disease affecting young people in North America, is caused by failure of the chloride ion channel known as CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator). CFTR belongs to the large family of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) membrane transporters. In CFTR, ATP-driven events at the nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs) open and close a gate that controls chloride permeation. However, the conformational changes concomitant with opening and closing of the CFTR gate are unknown. Diverse techniques including substituted cysteine accessibility method, disulfide cross-linking, and patch-clamp recording have been used to explore CFTR channel structure. Here, we consider the architecture of both the open and the closed CFTR channel. We review how CFTR channel structure changes between the closed and the open channel conformations and portray the relative function of both cytoplasmic and vestigial gates during the gating cycle. Understanding how the CFTR channel gates chloride permeation is central for understanding how CFTR defects lead to CF. Such knowledge opens the door for novel ways to maximize CFTR channel activity in a CF setting.

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator chloride channel blockers: Pharmacological, biophysical and physiological relevance

Dysfunction of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) chloride channel causes cystic fibrosis, while inappropriate activity of this channel occurs in secretory diarrhea and polycystic kidney disease. Drugs that interact directly with CFTR are therefore of interest in the treatment of a number of disease states. This review focuses on one class of small molecules that interacts directly with CFTR, namely inhibitors that act by directly blocking chloride movement through the open channel pore. In theory such compounds could be of use in the treatment of diarrhea and polycystic kidney disease, however in practice all known substances acting by this mechanism to inhibit CFTR function lack either the potency or specificity for in vivo use. Nevertheless, this theoretical pharmacological usefulness set the scene for the development of more potent, specific CFTR inhibitors. Biophysically, open channel blockers have proven most useful as experimental probes of the structure and function of the CFTR chloride channel pore. Most importantly, the use of these blockers has been fundamental in developing a functional model of the pore that includes a wide inner vestibule that uses positively charged amino acid side chains to attract both permeant and blocking anions from the cell cytoplasm. CFTR channels are also subject to this kind of blocking action by endogenous anions present in the cell cytoplasm, and recently this blocking effect has been suggested to play a role in the physiological control of CFTR channel function, in particular as a novel mechanism linking CFTR function dynamically to the composition of epithelial cell secretions. It has also been suggested that future drugs could target this same pathway as a way of pharmacologically increasing CFTR activity in cystic fibrosis. Studying open channel blockers and their mechanisms of action has resulted in significant advances in our understanding of CFTR as a pharmacological target in disease states, of CFTR channel structure and function, and of how CFTR activity is controlled by its local environment.

Functional architecture of the CFTR chloride channel

Cystic fibrosis is caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), a member of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) family of membrane transport proteins. CFTR is unique among ABC proteins in that it functions not as an active transporter but as an ATP-gated Cl(-) channel. As an ion channel, the function of the CFTR transmembrane channel pore that mediates Cl(-) movement has been studied in great detail. On the other hand, only low resolution structural data is available on the transmembrane parts of the protein. The structure of the channel pore has, however, been modeled on the known structure of active transporter ABC proteins. Currently, significant barriers exist to building a unified view of CFTR pore structure and function. Reconciling functional data on the channel with indirect structural data based on other proteins with very different transport functions and substrates has proven problematic. This review summarizes current structural and functional models of the CFTR Cl(-) channel pore, including a comprehensive review of previous electrophysiological investigations of channel structure and function. In addition, functional data on the three-dimensional arrangement of pore-lining helices, as well as contemporary hypotheses concerning conformational changes in the pore that occur during channel opening and closing, are discussed. Important similarities and differences between different models of the pore highlight current gaps in our knowledge of CFTR structure and function. In order to fill these gaps, structural and functional models of the membrane-spanning pore need to become better integrated.

Modeling the conformational changes underlying channel opening in CFTR

Mutations in the gene encoding the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator protein (CFTR) cause cystic fibrosis (CF), the most common life-shortening genetic disease among Caucasians. Although general features of the structure of CFTR have been predicted from homology models, the conformational changes that result in channel opening and closing have yet to be resolved. We created new closed- and open-state homology models of CFTR, and performed targeted molecular dynamics simulations of the conformational transitions in a channel opening event. The simulations predict a conformational wave that starts at the nucleotide binding domains and ends with the formation of an open conduction pathway. Changes in side-chain interactions are observed in all major domains of the protein, and experimental confirmation was obtained for a novel intra-protein salt bridge that breaks near the end of the transition. The models and simulation add to our understanding of the mechanism of ATP-dependent gating in this disease-relevant ion channel.

Relative contribution of different transmembrane segments to the CFTR chloride channel pore

The membrane-spanning part of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) Cl(-) channel comprises 12 transmembrane (TM) α-helices, arranged in 2 symmetrical groups of 6. However, those TMs that line the channel pore are not completely defined. We used patch clamp recording to compare the accessibility of cysteine-reactive reagents to cysteines introduced into different TMs. Several residues in TM11 were accessible to extracellular and/or intracellular cysteine reactive reagents; however, no reactive cysteines were identified in TMs 5 or 11. Two accessible residues in TM11 (T1115C and S1118C) were found to be more readily modified from the extracellular solution in closed channels, but more readily modified from the intracellular solution in open channels, as previously reported for T338C in TM6. However, the effects of mutagenesis at S1118 (TM11) on a range of pore functional properties were relatively minor compared to the large effects of mutagenesis at T338 (TM6). Our results suggest that the CFTR pore is lined by TM11 but not by TM5 or TM7. Comparison with previous works therefore suggests that the pore is lined by TMs 1, 6, 11, and 12, suggesting that the structure of the open channel pore is asymmetric in terms of the contributions of different TMs. Although TMs 6 and 11 appear to undergo similar conformational changes during channel opening and closing, the influence of these two TMs on the functional properties of the narrowest region of the pore is clearly unequal.

Cysteine scanning of CFTR's first transmembrane segment reveals its plausible roles in gating and permeation

Previous cysteine scanning studies of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) chloride channel have identified several transmembrane segments (TMs), including TM1, 3, 6, 9, and 12, as structural components of the pore. Some of these TMs such as TM6 and 12 may also be involved in gating conformational changes. However, recent results on TM1 seem puzzling in that the observed reactive pattern was quite different from those seen with TM6 and 12. In addition, whether TM1 also plays a role in gating motions remains largely unknown. Here, we investigated CFTR's TM1 by applying methanethiosulfonate (MTS) reagents from both cytoplasmic and extracellular sides of the membrane. Our experiments identified four positive positions, E92, K95, Q98, and L102, when the negatively charged MTSES was applied from the cytoplasmic side. Intriguingly, these four residues reside in the extracellular half of TM1 in previously defined CFTR topology; we thus extended our scanning to residues located extracellularly to L102. We found that cysteines introduced into positions 106, 107, and 109 indeed react with extracellularly applied MTS probes, but not to intracellularly applied reagents. Interestingly, whole-cell A107C-CFTR currents were very sensitive to changes of bath pH as if the introduced cysteine assumes an altered pKa-like T338C in TM6. These findings lead us to propose a revised topology for CFTR's TM1 that spans at least from E92 to Y109. Additionally, side-dependent modifications of these positions indicate a narrow region (L102-I106) that prevents MTS reagents from penetrating the pore, a picture similar to what has been reported for TM6. Moreover, modifications of K95C, Q98C, and L102C exhibit strong state dependency with negligible modification when the channel is closed, suggesting a significant rearrangement of TM1 during CFTR's gating cycle. The structural implications of these findings are discussed in light of the crystal structures of ABC transporters and homology models of CFTR.

Two salt bridges differentially contribute to the maintenance of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) channel function

Previous studies have identified two salt bridges in human CFTR chloride ion channels, Arg(352)-Asp(993) and Arg(347)-Asp(924), that are required for normal channel function. In the present study, we determined how the two salt bridges cooperate to maintain the open pore architecture of CFTR. Our data suggest that Arg(347) not only interacts with Asp(924) but also interacts with Asp(993). The tripartite interaction Arg(347)-Asp(924)-Asp(993) mainly contributes to maintaining a stable s2 open subconductance state. The Arg(352)-Asp(993) salt bridge, in contrast, is involved in stabilizing both the s2 and full (f) open conductance states, with the main contribution being to the f state. The s1 subconductance state does not require either salt bridge. In confirmation of the role of Arg(352) and Asp(993), channels bearing cysteines at these sites could be latched into a full open state using the bifunctional cross-linker 1,2-ethanediyl bismethanethiosulfonate, but only when applied in the open state. Channels remained latched open even after washout of ATP. The results suggest that these interacting residues contribute differently to stabilizing the open pore in different phases of the gating cycle.

The CFTR ion channel: gating, regulation, and anion permeation

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is an ATP-gated anion channel with two remarkable distinctions. First, it is the only ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter that is known to be an ion channel--almost all others function as transport ATPases. Second, CFTR is the only ligand-gated channel that consumes its ligand (ATP) during the gating cycle--a consequence of its enzymatic activity as an ABC transporter. We discuss these special properties of CFTR in the context of its evolutionary history as an ABC transporter. Other topics include the mechanisms by which CFTR gating is regulated by phosphorylation of its unique regulatory domain and our current view of the CFTR permeation pathway (or pore). Understanding these basic operating principles of the CFTR channel is central to defining the mechanisms of action of prospective cystic fibrosis drugs and to the development of new, rational treatment strategies.

The power stroke driven by ATP binding in CFTR as studied by molecular dynamics simulations

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is a chloride channel belonging to the ATP binding cassette (ABC) protein superfamily. Currently, it remains unclear how ATP binding causes the opening of the channel gate at the molecular level. To clarify this mechanism, we first constructed an atomic model of the inward-facing CFTR using the X-ray structures of other ABC proteins. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were then performed to explore the structure and dynamics of the inward-facing CFTR in a membrane environment. In the MgATP-bound state, two nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs) formed a head-to-tail type of dimer, in which the ATP molecules were sandwiched between the Walker A and signature motifs. Alternatively, one of the final MD structures in the apo state was similar to that of a "closed-apo" conformation found in the X-ray analysis of ATP-free MsbA. Principal component analysis for the MD trajectory indicated that NBD dimerization causes significant structural and dynamical changes in the transmembrane domains (TMDs), which is likely indicative of the formation of a chloride ion access path. This study suggests that the free energy gain from ATP binding acts as a driving force not only for NBD dimerization but also for NBD-TMD concerted motions.

Tuning of CFTR chloride channel function by location of positive charges within the pore

High unitary Cl(-) conductance in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Cl(-) channel requires a functionally unique, positively charged lysine residue (K95) in the inner vestibule of the channel pore. Here we used a mutagenic approach to investigate the ability of other sites in the pore to host this important positive charge. The loss of conductance observed in the K95Q mutation was >50% rescued by substituting a lysine for each of five different pore-lining amino acids, suggesting that the exact location of the fixed positive charge is not crucial to support high conductance. Moving the positive charge also restored open-channel blocker interactions that are lost in K95Q. Introducing a second positive charge in addition to that at K95 did not increase conductance at any site, but did result in a striking increase in the strength of block by divalent Pt(NO(2))(4)(2-) ions. Based on the site dependence of these effects, we propose that although the exact location of the positive charge is not crucial for normal pore properties, transplanting this charge to other sites results in a diminution of its effectiveness that appears to depend on its location along the axis of the pore.

Role of ATP binding and hydrolysis in the gating of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator

The CFTR gene is unique within the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) protein family, predominantly of transporters, by coding a chloride channel. The gating mechanism of ABC proteins has been characterized by the ATP Switch model in terms cycles of dimer formation and dissociation linked to ATP binding and hydrolysis, respectively. It would be of interest to assess the extent that Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR), a functional channel, fits the ATP Switch model for ABC transporters. Additional transporter mechanisms, namely those of Pgp and HlyB, are discussed for perspective. Literature search of databases selected key references in comparing and contrasting the gating mechanism. CFTR is a functional chloride channel facilitating transmembrane anion flow down electrochemical gradients. A dysfunctional CFTR protein results in cystic fibrosis, a fatal pleiotropic disease currently managed symptomatically. Understanding the gating mechanism will help target drug development aimed at alleviating and curing the disease.

Relative movements of transmembrane regions at the outer mouth of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator channel pore during channel gating

Multiple transmembrane (TM) segments line the pore of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Cl(-) channel; however, the relative alignment of these TMs and their relative movements during channel gating are unknown. To gain three-dimensional structural information on the outer pore, we have used patch clamp recording to study the proximity of pairs of cysteine side chains introduced into TMs 6 and 11, using both disulfide cross-linking and Cd(2+) coordination. Following channel activation, disulfide bonds could apparently be formed between three cysteine pairs (of 15 studied): R334C/T1122C, R334C/G1127C, and T338C/S1118C. To examine the state dependence of cross-linking, we combined these cysteine mutations with a nucleotide-binding domain mutation (E1371Q) that stabilizes the channel open state. Investigation of the effects of the E1371Q mutation on disulfide bond formation and Cd(2+) coordination suggests that although R334C/T1122C and T338C/S1118C are closer together in the channel open state, R334C/G1127C are close together and can form disulfide bonds only when the channel is closed. These results provide important new information on the three-dimensional structure of the outer mouth of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator channel pore: TMs 6 and 11 are close enough together to form disulfide bonds in both open and closed channels. Moreover, the altered relative locations of residues in open and in closed channels that we infer allow us to propose that channel opening and closing may be associated with a relative translational movement of TMs 6 and 11, with TM6 moving "down" (toward the cytoplasm) during channel opening.

New model of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator proposes active channel-like conformation

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is an unusual ABC transporter, functioning as a chloride channel critical for fluid homeostasis in multiple organs. Disruption of CFTR function is associated with cystic fibrosis making it an attractive therapeutic target. In addition, CFTR blockers are being developed as potential antidiarrheals. CFTR drug discovery is hampered by the lack of high resolution structural data, and considerable efforts have been invested in modeling the channel structure. Although previously published CFTR models that have been made publicly available mostly agree with experimental data relating to the overall structure, they present the channel in an outward-facing conformation that does not agree with expected properties of a "channel-like" structure. Here, we make available a model of CFTR in such a "channel-like" conformation, derived by a unique modeling approach combining restrained homology modeling and ROSETTA refinement. In contrast to others, the present model is in agreement with expected channel properties such as pore shape, dimensions, solvent accessibility, and experimentally derived distances. We have used the model to explore the interaction of open channel blockers within the pore, revealing a common binding mode and ionic interaction with K95, in agreement with experimental data. The binding-site was further validated using a virtual screening enrichment experiment, suggesting the model might be suitable for drug discovery. In addition, we subjected the model to a molecular dynamics simulation, revealing previously unaddressed salt-bridge interactions that may be important for structure stability and pore-lining residues that may take part in Cl(-) conductance.

Role of the juxtamembrane region of cytoplasmic loop 3 in the gating and conductance of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator chloride channel

Opening and closing of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator chloride channel are controlled by interactions of ATP with its cytoplasmic nucleotide binding domains (NBDs). The NBDs are connected to the transmembrane pore via four cytoplasmic loops. These loops have been suggested to play roles both in channel gating and in forming a cytoplasmic extension of the channel pore. To investigate the structure and function of one of these cytoplasmic loops, we have used patch clamp recording to investigate the accessibility of cytoplasmically applied cysteine-reactive reagents to cysteines introduced into loop 3. We find that methanethiosulfonate (MTS) reagents modify cysteines introduced at 14 of 16 sites studied in the juxtamembrane region of loop 3, in all cases leading to inhibition of channel function. In most cases, both the functional effects of modification and the rate of modification were similar for negatively and positively charged MTS reagents. Single-channel recordings indicated that, at all sites, inhibition was the result of an MTS reagent-induced decrease in channel open probability; in no case was the Cl(-) conductance of open channels altered by modification. These results indicate that loop 3 is readily accessible to the cytoplasm and support the involvement of this region in the control of channel gating. However, our results do not support the hypothesis that this region is close enough to the Cl(-) permeation pathway to exert any influence on permeating Cl(-) ions. We propose that either the cytoplasmic pore is very wide or cytoplasmic Cl(-) ions use other routes to access the transmembrane pore.

Structural basis for the channel function of a degraded ABC transporter, CFTR (ABCC7)

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is a member of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily, but little is known about how this ion channel that harbors an uninterrupted ion permeation pathway evolves from a transporter that works by alternately exposing its substrate conduit to the two sides of the membrane. Here, we assessed reactivity of intracellularly applied thiol-specific probes with cysteine residues substituted into the 12th transmembrane segment (TM12) of CFTR. Our experimental data showing high reaction rates of substituted cysteines toward the probes, strong blocker protection of cysteines against reaction, and reaction-induced alterations in channel conductance support the idea that TM12 of CFTR contributes to the lining of the ion permeation pathway. Together with previous work, these findings raise the possibility that pore-lining elements of CFTR involve structural components resembling those that form the substrate translocation pathway of ABC transporters. In addition, comparison of reaction rates in the open and closed states of the CFTR channel leads us to propose that upon channel opening, the wide cytoplasmic vestibule tightens and the pore-lining TM12 rotates along its helical axis. This simple model for gating conformational changes in the inner pore domain of CFTR argues that the gating transition of CFTR and the transport cycle of ABC proteins share analogous conformational changes. Collectively, our data corroborate the popular hypothesis that degradation of the cytoplasmic-side gate turned an ABC transporter into the CFTR channel.

Conformational change opening the CFTR chloride channel pore coupled to ATP-dependent gating

Opening and closing of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) chloride channel are controlled by ATP binding and hydrolysis by its nucleotide binding domains (NBDs). This is presumed to control opening of a single "gate" within the permeation pathway, however, the location of such a gate has not been described. We used patch clamp recording to monitor access of cytosolic cysteine reactive reagents to cysteines introduced into different transmembrane (TM) regions in a cysteine-less form of CFTR. The rate of modification of Q98C (TM1) and I344C (TM6) by both [2-sulfonatoethyl] methanethiosulfonate (MTSES) and permeant Au(CN)(2)(-) ions was reduced when ATP concentration was reduced from 1mM to 10μM, and modification by MTSES was accelerated when 2mM pyrophosphate was applied to prevent channel closure. Modification of K95C (TM1) and V345C (TM6) was not affected by these manoeuvres. We also manipulated gating by introducing the mutations K464A (in NBD1) and E1371Q (in NBD2). The rate of modification of Q98C and I344C by both MTSES and Au(CN)(2)(-) was decreased by K464A and increased by E1371Q, whereas modification of K95C and V345C was not affected. These results suggest that access from the cytoplasm to K95 and V345 is similar in open and closed channels. In contrast, modifying ATP-dependent channel gating alters access to Q98 and I344, located further into the pore. We propose that ATP-dependent gating of CFTR is associated with the opening and closing of a gate within the permeation pathway at the level of these pore-lining amino acids.

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR): three-dimensional structure and localization of a channel gate

Cystic fibrosis affects about 1 in 2500 live births and involves loss of transmembrane chloride flux due to a lack of a membrane protein channel termed the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). We have studied CFTR structure by electron crystallography. The data were compared with existing structures of other ATP-binding cassette transporters. The protein was crystallized in the outward facing state and resembled the well characterized Sav1866 transporter. We identified regions in the CFTR map, not accounted for by Sav1866, which were potential locations for the regulatory region as well as the channel gate. In this analysis, we were aided by the fact that the unit cell was composed of two molecules not related by crystallographic symmetry. We also identified regions in the fitted Sav1866 model that were missing from the map, hence regions that were either disordered in CFTR or differently organized compared with Sav1866. Apart from the N and C termini, this indicated that in CFTR, the cytoplasmic end of transmembrane helix 5/11 and its associated loop could be partly disordered (or alternatively located).

Functional arrangement of the 12th transmembrane region in the CFTR chloride channel pore based on functional investigation of a cysteine-less CFTR variant

The membrane-spanning part of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) Cl(-) channel comprises 12 transmembrane (TM) α-helices, arranged into two pseudo-symmetrical groups of six. While TM6 in the N-terminal TMs is known to line the pore and to make an important contribution to channel properties, much less is known about its C-terminal counterpart, TM12. We have used patch clamp recording to investigate the accessibility of cytoplasmically applied cysteine-reactive reagents to cysteines introduced along the length of TM12 in a cysteine-less variant of CFTR. We find that methanethiosulfonate (MTS) reagents irreversibly modify cysteines substituted for TM12 residues N1138, M1140, S1141, T1142, Q1144, W1145, V1147, N1148, and S1149 when applied to the cytoplasmic side of open channels. Cysteines sensitive to internal MTS reagents were not modified by extracellular [2-(trimethylammonium)ethyl] MTS, consistent with MTS reagent impermeability. Both S1141C and T1142C could be modified by intracellular [2-sulfonatoethyl] MTS prior to channel activation; however, N1138C and M1140C, located deeper into the pore from its cytoplasmic end, were modified only after channel activation. Comparison of these results with previous work on CFTR-TM6 allows us to develop a model of the relative positions, functional contributions, and alignment of these two important TMs lining the CFTR pore. We also propose a mechanism by which these seemingly structurally symmetrical TMs make asymmetric contributions to the functional properties of the channel pore.

Alignment of transmembrane regions in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator chloride channel pore

Different transmembrane (TM) α helices are known to line the pore of the cystic fibrosis TM conductance regulator (CFTR) Cl⁻ channel. However, the relative alignment of these TMs in the three-dimensional structure of the pore is not known. We have used patch-clamp recording to investigate the accessibility of cytoplasmically applied cysteine-reactive reagents to cysteines introduced along the length of the pore-lining first TM (TM1) of a cysteine-less variant of CFTR. We find that methanethiosulfonate (MTS) reagents irreversibly modify cysteines substituted for TM1 residues K95, Q98, P99, and L102 when applied to the cytoplasmic side of open channels. Residues closer to the intracellular end of TM1 (Y84–T94) were not apparently modified by MTS reagents, suggesting that this part of TM1 does not line the pore. None of the internal MTS reagent-reactive cysteines was modified by extracellular [2-(trimethylammonium)ethyl] MTS. Only K95C, closest to the putative intracellular end of TM1, was apparently modified by intracellular [2-sulfonatoethyl] MTS before channel activation. Comparison of these results with recent work on CFTR-TM6 suggests a relative alignment of these two important TMs along the axis of the pore. This alignment was tested experimentally by formation of disulfide bridges between pairs of cysteines introduced into these two TMs. Currents carried by the double mutants K95C/I344C and Q98C/I344C, but not by the corresponding single-site mutants, were inhibited by the oxidizing agent copper(II)-o-phenanthroline. This inhibition was irreversible on washing but could be reversed by the reducing agent dithiothreitol, suggesting disulfide bond formation between the introduced cysteine side chains. These results allow us to develop a model of the relative positions, functional contributions, and alignment of two important TMs lining the CFTR pore. Such functional information is necessary to understand and interpret the three-dimensional structure of the pore.

Electrostatic influences of charged inner pore residues on the conductance and gating of small conductance Ca2+ activated K+ channels

SK channels underlie important physiological functions by linking calcium signaling with neuronal excitability. Potassium currents through SK channels demonstrate inward rectification, which further reduces their small outward conductance. Although it has been generally attributed to block of outward current by intracellular divalent ions, we find that inward rectification is in fact an intrinsic property of SK channels independent of intracellular blockers. We identified three charged residues in the S6 transmembrane domain of SK channels near the inner mouth of the pore that collectively control the conductance and rectification through an electrostatic mechanism. Additionally, electrostatic contributions from these residues also play an important role in determining the intrinsic open probability of SK channels in the absence of Ca(2+), affecting the apparent Ca(2+) affinity for activation.

Dual roles of the sixth transmembrane segment of the CFTR chloride channel in gating and permeation

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is the only member of the adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily that functions as a chloride channel. Previous work has suggested that the external side of the sixth transmembrane segment (TM6) plays an important role in governing chloride permeation, but the function of the internal side remains relatively obscure. Here, on a cysless background, we performed cysteine-scanning mutagenesis and modification to screen the entire TM6 with intracellularly applied thiol-specific methanethiosulfonate reagents. Single-channel amplitude was reduced in seven cysteine-substituted mutants, suggesting a role of these residues in maintaining the pore structure for normal ion permeation. The reactivity pattern of differently charged reagents suggests that the cytoplasmic part of TM6 assumes a secondary structure of an alpha helix, and that reactive sites (341, 344, 345, 348, 352, and 353) reside in two neighboring faces of the helix. Although, as expected, modification by negatively charged reagents inhibits anion permeation, interestingly, modification by positively charged reagents of cysteine thiolates on one face (344, 348, and 352) of the helix affects gating. For I344C and M348C, the open time was prolonged and the closed time was shortened after modification, suggesting that depositions of positive charges at these positions stabilize the open state but destabilize the closed state. For R352C, which exhibited reduced single-channel amplitude, modifications by two positively charged reagents with different chemical properties completely restored the single-channel amplitude but had distinct effects on both the open time and the closed time. These results corroborate the idea that a helix rotation of TM6, which has been proposed to be part of the molecular motions during transport cycles in other ABC transporters, is associated with gating of the CFTR pore.

Regulation of Na+/K+ ATPase transport velocity by RNA editing

Editing of Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase mRNAs modulates the Na⁺/K⁺ pump's turnover rate by selectively targeting the release of the final sodium to the outside.

Because firing properties and metabolic rates vary widely, neurons require different transport rates from their Na⁺/K⁺ pumps in order to maintain ion homeostasis. In this study we show that Na⁺/K⁺ pump activity is tightly regulated by a novel process, RNA editing. Three codons within the squid Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase gene can be recoded at the RNA level, and the efficiency of conversion for each varies dramatically, and independently, between tissues. At one site, a highly conserved isoleucine in the seventh transmembrane span can be converted to a valine, a change that shifts the pump's intrinsic voltage dependence. Mechanistically, the removal of a single methyl group specifically targets the process of Na⁺ release to the extracellular solution, causing a higher turnover rate at the resting membrane potential.

In order for excitable cells like neurons and muscles to generate electrical signals, they require ion gradients across their plasma membranes. For example, sodium concentrations are much lower inside a cell than outside, and for potassium it is the opposite case. The job of maintaining these ion gradients falls squarely on a single protein: the Na⁺/K⁺ pump. During each transport cycle, this enzyme moves three sodium ions out of the cell and imports two of potassium. Because this process is the foundation for so many physiological processes, the Na⁺/K⁺ pump is costly to operate, using ∼30% of the ATP generated by an organism. Proper regulation of its turnover rate is vital. In this work, we use the giant nerve cell of squid as a model to show that the Na⁺/K⁺ pump can be regulated by an unsuspected mechanism. Although the gene that codes for this enzyme can make a perfectly functional pump, sometimes its information changes as it passes through the messenger RNA. This is achieved by editing RNA and as a result subtly different versions of the pump can be made, differing at only three amino acids out of more than a thousand. We demonstrate that RNA editing modulates the Na⁺/K⁺ pump's turnover rate and sodium release.

Changes in accessibility of cytoplasmic substances to the pore associated with activation of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator chloride channel

Opening of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Cl(-) channel is dependent both on phosphorylation and on ATP binding and hydrolysis. However, the mechanisms by which these cytoplasmic regulatory factors open the Cl(-) channel pore are not known. We have used patch clamp recording to investigate the accessibility of cytoplasmically applied cysteine-reactive reagents to cysteines introduced along the length of the pore-lining sixth transmembrane region (TM6) of a cysteine-less variant of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator. We find that methanethiosulfonate (MTS) reagents modify irreversibly cysteines substituted for TM6 residues Phe-337, Thr-338, Ser-341, Ile-344, Val-345, Met-348, Ala-349, Arg-352, and Gln-353 when applied to the cytoplasmic side of open channels. However, the apparent rate of modification by internal [2-sulfonatoethyl] methanethiosulfonate (MTSES), a negatively charged MTS reagent, is dependent on the activation state of the channels. In particular, cysteines introduced far along the axis of TM6 from the inside (T338C, S341C, I344C) showed no evidence of significant modification even after prolonged pretreatment of non-activated channels with internal MTSES. In contrast, cysteines introduced closer to the inside of TM6 (V345C, M348C) were readily modified in both activated and non-activated channels. Access of a permeant anion, Au(CN)(2)(-), to T338C was similarly dependent upon channel activation state. The pattern of MTS modification we observe allows us to designate different pore-lining amino acid side chains to distinct functional regions of the channel pore. One logical interpretation of these findings is that cytoplasmic access to residues at the narrowest region of the pore changes concomitant with activation.

Therapeutic potential of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) inhibitors in polycystic kidney disease

In the common genetic disorder autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD), kidney function is disrupted by multiple fluid-filled epithelial cysts. Cyst growth in ADPKD involves fluid accumulation within the cyst lumen driven by cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR)-mediated transepithelial Cl- secretion. This suggests that inhibitors of the CFTR Cl- channel might retard cyst growth. This review considers how knowledge of CFTR structure and function and its role in transepithelial salt and water movements provides insight into the mechanism of action of CFTR inhibitors. Some small molecules, termed open-channel blockers, inhibit directly the CFTR Cl- channel by physically obstructing the CFTR pore and preventing Cl- flow. By contrast, other small molecules, termed allosteric inhibitors, bind to CFTR at a site remote from the channel pore and interfere with conformational changes that open the pore. The application of high-throughput screening to CFTR drug discovery has led to the identification of new inhibitors of the CFTR Cl- channel including the thiazolidinone CFTR(inh)-172 and the glycine hydrazide GlyH-101. The demonstration that CFTR inhibitors retard cyst expansion and kidney enlargement in mouse models of ADPKD provides proof of concept for the use of small-molecule CFTR inhibitors in the treatment of ADPKD.

Regulation of conductance by the number of fixed positive charges in the intracellular vestibule of the CFTR chloride channel pore

Rapid chloride permeation through the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) Cl(-) channel is dependent on the presence of fixed positive charges in the permeation pathway. Here, we use site-directed mutagenesis and patch clamp recording to show that the functional role played by one such positive charge (K95) in the inner vestibule of the pore can be "transplanted" to a residue in a different transmembrane (TM) region (S1141). Thus, the mutant channel K95S/S1141K showed Cl(-) conductance and open-channel blocker interactions similar to those of wild-type CFTR, thereby "rescuing" the effects of the charge-neutralizing K95S mutation. Furthermore, the function of K95C/S1141C, but not K95C or S1141C, was inhibited by the oxidizing agent copper(II)-o-phenanthroline, and this inhibition was reversed by the reducing agent dithiothreitol, suggesting disulfide bond formation between these two introduced cysteine side chains. These results suggest that the amino acid side chains of K95 (in TM1) and S1141 (in TM12) are functionally interchangeable and located closely together in the inner vestibule of the pore. This allowed us to investigate the functional effects of increasing the number of fixed positive charges in this vestibule from one (in wild type) to two (in the S1141K mutant). The S1141K mutant had similar Cl(-) conductance as wild type, but increased susceptibility to channel block by cytoplasmic anions including adenosine triphosphate, pyrophosphate, 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)benzoic acid, and Pt(NO(2))(4)(2-) in inside-out membrane patches. Furthermore, in cell-attached patch recordings, apparent voltage-dependent channel block by cytosolic anions was strengthened by the S1141K mutation. Thus, the Cl(-) channel function of CFTR is maximal with a single fixed positive charge in this part of the inner vestibule of the pore, and increasing the number of such charges to two causes a net decrease in overall Cl(-) transport through a combination of failure to increase Cl(-) conductance and increased susceptibility to channel block by cytosolic substances.

Molecular and functional characterization of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator from the Australian common brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula

Unlike eutherian mammals, the colon of the Australian common brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula, a metatherian mammal, is incapable of electrogenic Cl(-) secretion and has elevated levels of electrogenic Na(+) absorption, while the ileum secretes HCO (3) (-) rather than Cl(-). In eutherian mammals, the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is essential for both Cl(-) and HCO (3) (-) secretion and the regulation of Na(+) absorption. Therefore, we have sequenced possum (p)CFTR, described its distribution and characterized the properties of cloned pCFTR expressed in Fischer rat thyroid (FRT) cells. pCFTR (GenBank accession No. AY916796) has a 1,478 amino acid open reading frame, which has >90% identity with CFTR from other marsupials and >80% identity with non-rodent eutherian mammals. In pCFTR, there is a high level of conservation of the transmembrane and nucleotide binding domains although, with the exception of other marsupials, there is considerable divergence from other species in the R domain. FRT cells transfected with pCFTR express mature CFTR protein which functions as a small Cl(-) channel activated by cAMP-dependent phosphorylation. In whole-cell recordings it has a linear, time and voltage-independent conductance, with a selectivity sequence P(Br) > P(Cl) > P(I) > P(HCO)(3) >> P(Gluconate). pCFTR transcript is present in a range of epithelia, including the ileum and the colon. The presence of pCFTR in the ileum and its measured HCO (3) (-) permeability suggest that it may be involved in ileal HCO (3) (-) secretion. Why the possum colon does not secrete Cl(-) and has elevated electrogenic Na(+) absorption, despite the apparent expression of CFTR, remains to be determined.

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator: using differential reactivity toward channel-permeant and channel-impermeant thiol-reactive probes to test a molecular model for the pore

The sixth transmembrane segment (TM6) of the CFTR chloride channel has been intensively investigated. The effects of amino acid substitutions and chemical modification of engineered cysteines (cysteine scanning) on channel properties strongly suggest that TM6 is a key component of the anion-conducting pore, but previous cysteine-scanning studies of TM6 have produced conflicting results. Our aim was to resolve these conflicts by combining a screening strategy based on multiple, thiol-directed probes with molecular modeling of the pore. CFTR constructs were screened for reactivity toward both channel-permeant and channel-impermeant thiol-directed reagents, and patterns of reactivity in TM6 were mapped onto two new, molecular models of the CFTR pore: one based on homology modeling using Sav1866 as the template and a second derived from the first by molecular dynamics simulation. Comparison of the pattern of cysteine reactivity with model predictions suggests that nonreactive sites are those where the TM6 side chains are occluded by other TMs. Reactive sites, in contrast, are generally situated such that the respective amino acid side chains either project into the predicted pore or lie within a predicted extracellular loop. Sites where engineered cysteines react with both channel-permeant and channel-impermeant probes occupy the outermost extent of TM6 or the predicted TM5-6 loop. Sites where cysteine reactivity is limited to channel-permeant probes occupy more cytoplasmic locations. The results provide an initial validation of two, new molecular models for CFTR and suggest that molecular dynamics simulation will be a useful tool for unraveling the structural basis of anion conduction by CFTR.

Molecular models of the open and closed states of the whole human CFTR protein

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), involved in cystic fibrosis (CF), is a chloride channel belonging to the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) superfamily. Using the experimental structure of Sav1866 as template, we previously modeled the human CFTR structure, including membrane-spanning domains (MSD) and nucleotide-binding domains (NBD), in an outward-facing conformation (open channel state). Here, we constructed a model of the CFTR inward-facing conformation (closed channel) on the basis of the recent corrected structures of MsbA and compared the structural features of those two states of the channel. Interestingly, the MSD:NBD coupling interfaces including F508 (DeltaF508 being the most common CF mutation) are mainly left unchanged. This prediction, completed by the modeling of the regulatory R domain, is supported by experimental data and provides a molecular basis for a better understanding of the functioning of CFTR, especially of the structural features that make CFTR the unique channel among the ABC transporters.