Intermediate state trapping of a voltage sensor

Structural Basis for Voltage Gating and Dalfampridine Binding in the Shaker Potassium Channel

The generation and propagation of action potentials in neurons depend on the coordinated activation of voltage-dependent sodium and potassium channels. Potassium channels of the Shaker family regulate neuronal excitability through voltage-dependent opening and closing of their ion conduction pore. This family of channels is an important therapeutic target, particularly in multiple sclerosis where the inhibitor dalfampridine (4-aminopyridine) is used to improve nerve conduction. The molecular details of how the voltage sensor domain drives opening of the pore domain has been limited by the lack of closed-state structures, also impairing the search for novel drugs. Using AlphaFold2-based conformational sampling methods we identify a structural model for the closed Shaker potassium channel where movement of the voltage sensor drives the opening trough interactions between the S4-S5 linker and S6 helix. We show experimentally that breakage of a backbone hydrogen bond is a critical part of the activation pathway. Through docking we identify a hydrophobic cavity formed by the pore domain helices that binds dalfampridine in the closed state. Our results demonstrate how voltage sensor movement drives pore opening and provide a structural framework for developing new therapeutic agents targeting the closed state. We anticipate this work will enable structure-based drug design efforts focused on state-dependent modulation of voltage-gated ion channels for the treatment of neurological disorders.

Turning a Kv channel into hot and cold receptor by perturbing its electromechanical coupling

Voltage-dependent potassium channels (Kv) are extremely sensitive to membrane voltage and play a crucial role in membrane repolarization during action potentials. Kv channels undergo voltage-dependent transitions between closed states before opening. Despite all we have learned using electrophysiological methods and structural studies, we still lack a detailed picture of the energetics of the activation process. We show here that even a single mutation can drastically modify the temperature response of the Shaker Kv channel. Using rapid cell membrane temperature steps (Tsteps), we explored the effects of temperature on the ILT mutant (V369I, I372L, and S376T) and the I384N mutant. The ILT mutant produces a significant separation between the transitions of the voltage sensor domain (VSD) activation and the I384N uncouples its movement from the opening of the domain (PD). ILT and I384N respond to temperature in drastically different ways. In ILT, temperature facilitates the opening of the channel akin to a "hot" receptor, reflecting the temperature dependence of the voltage sensor's last transition and facilitating VSD to PD coupling (electromechanical coupling). In I384N, temperature stabilizes the channel closed configuration analogous to a "cold" receptor. Since I384N drastically uncouples the VSD from the pore opening, we reveal the intrinsic temperature dependence of the PD itself. Here, we propose that the electromechanical coupling has either a "loose" or "tight" conformation. In the loose conformation, the movement of the VSD is necessary but not sufficient to efficiently propagate the electromechanical energy to the S6 gate. In the tight conformation the VSD activation is more effectively translated into the opening of the PD. This conformational switch can be tuned by temperature and modifications of the S4 and S4-S5 linker. Our results show that we can modulate the temperature dependence of Kv channels by affecting its electromechanical coupling.

Electro-mechanical coupling of KCNQ channels is a target of epilepsy-associated mutations and retigabine

KCNQ2 and KCNQ3 form the M-channels that are important in regulating neuronal excitability. Inherited mutations that alter voltage-dependent gating of M-channels are associated with neonatal epilepsy. In the homolog KCNQ1 channel, two steps of voltage sensor activation lead to two functionally distinct open states, the intermediate-open (IO) and activated-open (AO), which define the gating, physiological, and pharmacological properties of KCNQ1. However, whether the M-channel shares the same mechanism is unclear. Here, we show that KCNQ2 and KCNQ3 feature only a single conductive AO state but with a conserved mechanism for the electro-mechanical (E-M) coupling between voltage sensor activation and pore opening. We identified some epilepsy-linked mutations in KCNQ2 and KCNQ3 that disrupt E-M coupling. The antiepileptic drug retigabine rescued KCNQ3 currents that were abolished by a mutation disrupting E-M coupling, suggesting that modulating the E-M coupling in KCNQ channels presents a potential strategy for antiepileptic therapy.

Computational methods and theory for ion channel research

Ion channels are fundamental biological devices that act as gates in order to ensure selective ion transport across cellular membranes; their operation constitutes the molecular mechanism through which basic biological functions, such as nerve signal transmission and muscle contraction, are carried out. Here, we review recent results in the field of computational research on ion channels, covering theoretical advances, state-of-the-art simulation approaches, and frontline modeling techniques. We also report on few selected applications of continuum and atomistic methods to characterize the mechanisms of permeation, selectivity, and gating in biological and model channels.

Tracking the movement of discrete gating charges in a voltage-gated potassium channel

Positively charged amino acids respond to membrane potential changes to drive voltage sensor movement in voltage-gated ion channels, but determining the displacements of voltage sensor gating charges has proven difficult. We optically tracked the movement of the two most extracellular charged residues (R1 and R2) in the Shaker potassium channel voltage sensor using a fluorescent positively charged bimane derivative (qBBr) that is strongly quenched by tryptophan. By individually mutating residues to tryptophan within the putative pathway of gating charges, we observed that the charge motion during activation is a rotation and a tilted translation that differs between R1 and R2. Tryptophan-induced quenching of qBBr also indicates that a crucial residue of the hydrophobic plug is linked to the Cole-Moore shift through its interaction with R1. Finally, we show that this approach extends to additional voltage-sensing membrane proteins using the Ciona intestinalis voltage-sensitive phosphatase (CiVSP).

String Method with Swarms-of-Trajectories, Mean Drifts, Lag Time, and Committor

The kinetics of a dynamical system comprising two metastable states is formulated in terms of a finite-time propagator in phase space (position and velocity) adapted to the underdamped Langevin equation. Dimensionality reduction to a subspace of collective variables yields familiar expressions for the propagator, committor, and steady-state flux. A quadratic expression for the steady-state flux between the two metastable states can serve as a robust variational principle to determine an optimal approximate committor expressed in terms of a set of collective variables. The theoretical formulation is exploited to clarify the foundation of the string method with swarms-of-trajectories, which relies on the mean drift of short trajectories to determine the optimal transition pathway. It is argued that the conditions for Markovity within a subspace of collective variables may not be satisfied with an arbitrary short time-step and that proper kinetic behaviors appear only when considering the effective propagator for longer lag times. The effective propagator with finite lag time is amenable to an eigenvalue-eigenvector spectral analysis, as elaborated previously in the context of position-based Markov models. The time-correlation functions calculated by swarms-of-trajectories along the string pathway constitutes a natural extension of these developments. The present formulation provides a powerful theoretical framework to characterize the optimal pathway between two metastable states of a system.

Molecular basis for functional connectivity between the voltage sensor and the selectivity filter gate in Shaker K+ channels

In Shaker K⁺ channels, the S4-S5 linker couples the voltage sensor (VSD) and pore domain (PD). Another coupling mechanism is revealed using two W434F-containing channels: L361R:W434F and L366H:W434F. In L361R:W434F, W434F affects the L361R VSD seen as a shallower charge-voltage (Q-V) curve that crosses the conductance-voltage (G-V) curve. In L366H:W434F, L366H relieves the W434F effect converting a non-conductive channel in a conductive one. We report a chain of residues connecting the VSD (S4) to the selectivity filter (SF) in the PD of an adjacent subunit as the molecular basis for voltage sensor selectivity filter gate (VS-SF) coupling. Single alanine substitutions in this region (L409A, S411A, S412A, or F433A) are enough to disrupt the VS-SF coupling, shown by the absence of Q-V and G-V crossing in L361R:W434F mutant and by the lack of ionic conduction in the L366H:W434F mutant. This residue chain defines a new coupling between the VSD and the PD in voltage-gated channels.

Multiscale modeling shows that dielectric differences make NaV channels faster than KV channels

The generation of action potentials in excitable cells requires different activation kinetics of voltage-gated Na (Na_V) and K (K_V) channels. Na_V channels activate much faster and allow the initial Na⁺ influx that generates the depolarizing phase and propagates the signal. Recent experimental results suggest that the molecular basis for this kinetic difference is an amino acid side chain located in the gating pore of the voltage sensor domain, which is a highly conserved isoleucine in K_V channels but an equally highly conserved threonine in Na_V channels. Mutagenesis suggests that the hydrophobicity of this side chain in Shaker K_V channels regulates the energetic barrier that gating charges cross as they move through the gating pore and control the rate of channel opening. We use a multiscale modeling approach to test this hypothesis. We use high-resolution molecular dynamics to study the effect of the mutation on polarization charge within the gating pore. We then incorporate these results in a lower-resolution model of voltage gating to predict the effect of the mutation on the movement of gating charges. The predictions of our hierarchical model are fully consistent with the tested hypothesis, thus suggesting that the faster activation kinetics of Na_V channels comes from a stronger dielectric polarization by threonine (Na_V channel) produced as the first gating charge enters the gating pore compared with isoleucine (K_V channel).

Insights into Cardiac IKs (KCNQ1/KCNE1) Channels Regulation

The delayed rectifier potassium IKs channel is an important regulator of the duration of the ventricular action potential. Hundreds of mutations in the genes (KCNQ1 and KCNE1) encoding the IKs channel cause long QT syndrome (LQTS). LQTS is a heart disorder that can lead to severe cardiac arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. A better understanding of the IKs channel (here called the KCNQ1/KCNE1 channel) properties and activities is of great importance to find the causes of LQTS and thus potentially treat LQTS. The KCNQ1/KCNE1 channel belongs to the superfamily of voltage-gated potassium channels. The KCNQ1/KCNE1 channel consists of both the pore-forming subunit KCNQ1 and the modulatory subunit KCNE1. KCNE1 regulates the function of the KCNQ1 channel in several ways. This review aims to describe the current structural and functional knowledge about the cardiac KCNQ1/KCNE1 channel. In addition, we focus on the modulation of the KCNQ1/KCNE1 channel and its potential as a target therapeutic of LQTS.

Role of the time dependence of Boltzmann open probability in voltage-gated proton channels

The modeling and simulation of experimental families of current-time (I-t) curves of dimeric voltage-gated proton channels and of proton-conducting voltage sensing domains (VSDs) with a minimum of free parameters requires the movement of protons to be controlled by the rate of increase of the Boltzmann open probability p over time in passing from the holding to the depolarizing potential. Families of I-t curves of protomers and proton-conducting VSDs can be satisfactorily fitted by the use of a single free parameter expressing the rate constant k_p for the increase of p over time. Families of I-t curves of dimeric H_v1 channels can be fitted by a model that assumes an initial proton current I₁ flowing along the two monomeric units, while they are still operating separately; I₁ is gradually replaced by a slower and more potential-dependent current I₂ flowing when the two monomers start operating jointly under the control of the coiled-coil domain. Here too, p is assumed to increase over time with a rate constant k_p that doubles in passing from I₁ to I₂, with fit requiring three free parameters. Chord conductance yields erroneously high gating charges when fitted by the Boltzmann function, differently from slope conductance.

Structure and physiological function of the human KCNQ1 channel voltage sensor intermediate state

Voltage-gated ion channels feature voltage sensor domains (VSDs) that exist in three distinct conformations during activation: resting, intermediate, and activated. Experimental determination of the structure of a potassium channel VSD in the intermediate state has previously proven elusive. Here, we report and validate the experimental three-dimensional structure of the human KCNQ1 voltage-gated potassium channel VSD in the intermediate state. We also used mutagenesis and electrophysiology in Xenopus laevisoocytes to functionally map the determinants of S4 helix motion during voltage-dependent transition from the intermediate to the activated state. Finally, the physiological relevance of the intermediate state KCNQ1 conductance is demonstrated using voltage-clamp fluorometry. This work illuminates the structure of the VSD intermediate state and demonstrates that intermediate state conductivity contributes to the unusual versatility of KCNQ1, which can function either as the slow delayed rectifier current (IKs) of the cardiac action potential or as a constitutively active epithelial leak current.

Simulating ion channel activation mechanisms using swarms of trajectories

Atomic-level studies of protein activity represent a significant challenge as a result of the complexity of conformational changes occurring on wide-ranging timescales, often greatly exceeding that of even the longest simulations. A prime example is the elucidation of protein allosteric mechanisms, where localized perturbations transmit throughout a large macromolecule to generate a response signal. For example, the conversion of chemical to electrical signals during synaptic neurotransmission in the brain is achieved by specialized membrane proteins called pentameric ligand-gated ion channels. Here, the binding of a neurotransmitter results in a global conformational change to open an ion-conducting pore across the nerve cell membrane. X-ray crystallography has produced static structures of the open and closed states of the proton-gated GLIC pentameric ligand-gated ion channel protein, allowing for atomistic simulations that can uncover changes related to activation. We discuss a range of enhanced sampling approaches that could be used to explore activation mechanisms. In particular, we describe recent application of an atomistic string method, based on Roux's "swarms of trajectories" approach, to elucidate the sequence and interdependence of conformational changes during activation. We illustrate how this can be combined with transition analysis and Brownian dynamics to extract thermodynamic and kinetic information, leading to understanding of what controls ion channel function. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Noncanonical mechanism of voltage sensor coupling to pore revealed by tandem dimers of Shaker

In voltage-gated potassium channels (VGKC), voltage sensors (VSD) endow voltage-sensitivity to pore domains (PDs) through a not fully understood mechanism. Shaker-like VGKC show domain-swapped configuration: VSD of one subunit is covalently connected to its PD by the protein backbone (far connection) and non-covalently to the PD of the next subunit (near connection). VSD-to-PD coupling is not fully explained by far connection only, therefore an additional mechanistic component may be based on near connection. Using tandem dimers of Shaker channels we show functional data distinguishing VSD-to-PD far from near connections. Near connections influence both voltage-dependence of C-type inactivation at the selectivity filter and overall PD open probability. We speculate a conserved residue in S5 (S412 in Shaker), within van der Waals distance from next subunit S4 residues is key for the noncanonical VSD-to-PD coupling. Natural mutations of S412-homologous residues in brain and heart VGKC are related to neurological and cardiac diseases.

ML277 specifically enhances the fully activated open state of KCNQ1 by modulating VSD-pore coupling

Upon membrane depolarization, the KCNQ1 potassium channel opens at the intermediate (IO) and activated (AO) states of the stepwise voltage-sensing domain (VSD) activation. In the heart, KCNQ1 associates with KCNE1 subunits to form IKs channels that regulate heart rhythm. KCNE1 suppresses the IO state so that the IKs channel opens only to the AO state. Here, we tested modulations of human KCNQ1 channels by an activator ML277 in Xenopus oocytes. It exclusively changes the pore opening properties of the AO state without altering the IO state, but does not affect VSD activation. These observations support a distinctive mechanism responsible for the VSD-pore coupling at the AO state that is sensitive to ML277 modulation. ML277 provides insights and a tool to investigate the gating mechanism of KCNQ1 channels, and our study reveals a new strategy for treating long QT syndrome by specifically enhancing the AO state of native IKs currents.

Nonsensing residues in S3-S4 linker's C terminus affect the voltage sensor set point in K+ channels

Voltage-dependent gating in ion channels is achieved by the movement of voltage-sensing arginine residues across an electric field. Carvalho-de-Souza and Bezanilla reveal that the size and hydrophobicity of two non–voltage-sensing residues (L358 and L361) affect voltage dependence in Shaker K⁺ channels.

Voltage sensitivity in ion channels is a function of highly conserved arginine residues in their voltage-sensing domains (VSDs), but this conservation does not explain the diversity in voltage dependence among different K⁺ channels. Here we study the non–voltage-sensing residues 353 to 361 in Shaker K⁺ channels and find that residues 358 and 361 strongly modulate the voltage dependence of the channel. We mutate these two residues into all possible remaining amino acids (AAs) and obtain Q-V and G-V curves. We introduced the nonconducting W434F mutation to record sensing currents in all mutants except L361R, which requires K⁺ depletion because it is affected by W434F. By fitting Q-Vs with a sequential three-state model for two voltage dependence–related parameters (V₀, the voltage-dependent transition from the resting to intermediate state and V₁, from the latter to the active state) and G-Vs with a two-state model for the voltage dependence of the pore domain parameter (V_1/2), Spearman’s coefficients denoting variable relationships with hydrophobicity, available area, length, width, and volume of the AAs in 358 and 361 positions could be calculated. We find that mutations in residue 358 shift Q-Vs and G-Vs along the voltage axis by affecting V₀, V₁, and V_1/2 according to the hydrophobicity of the AA. Mutations in residue 361 also shift both curves, but V₀ is affected by the hydrophobicity of the AA in position 361, whereas V₁ and V_1/2 are affected by size-related AA indices. Small-to-tiny AAs have opposite effects on V₁ and V_1/2 in position 358 compared with 361. We hypothesize possible coordination points in the protein that residues 358 and 361 would temporarily and differently interact with in an intermediate state of VSD activation. Our data contribute to the accumulating knowledge of voltage-dependent ion channel activation by adding functional information about the effects of so-called non–voltage-sensing residues on VSD dynamics.

Inactivation of KCNQ1 potassium channels reveals dynamic coupling between voltage sensing and pore opening

In voltage-activated ion channels, voltage sensor (VSD) activation induces pore opening via VSD-pore coupling. Previous studies show that the pore in KCNQ1 channels opens when the VSD activates to both intermediate and fully activated states, resulting in the intermediate open (IO) and activated open (AO) states, respectively. It is also well known that accompanying KCNQ1 channel opening, the ionic current is suppressed by a rapid process called inactivation. Here we show that inactivation of KCNQ1 channels derives from the different mechanisms of the VSD-pore coupling that lead to the IO and AO states, respectively. When the VSD activates from the intermediate state to the activated state, the VSD-pore coupling has less efficacy in opening the pore, producing inactivation. These results indicate that different mechanisms, other than the canonical VSD-pore coupling, are at work in voltage-dependent ion channel activation.

KCNQ1 is a voltage-gated potassium channel that is important in cardiac and epithelial function. Here the authors present a mechanism for KCNQ1 activation and inactivation in which voltage sensor activation promotes pore opening more effectively in the intermediate open state than the fully open state, generating inactivation.

Gating of Connexin Channels by transjunctional-voltage: Conformations and models of open and closed states

Voltage is an important physiologic regulator of channels formed by the connexin gene family. Connexins are unique among ion channels in that both plasma membrane inserted hemichannels (undocked hemichannels) and intercellular channels (aggregates of which form gap junctions) have important physiological roles. The hemichannel is the fundamental unit of gap junction voltage-gating. Each hemichannel displays two distinct voltage-gating mechanisms that are primarily sensitive to a voltage gradient formed along the length of the channel pore (the transjunctional voltage) rather than sensitivity to the absolute membrane potential (V_m or V_i-o). These transjunctional voltage dependent processes have been termed V_j- or fast-gating and loop- or slow-gating. Understanding the mechanism of voltage-gating, defined as the sequence of voltage-driven transitions that connect open and closed states, first and foremost requires atomic resolution models of the end states. Although ion channels formed by connexins were among the first to be characterized structurally by electron microscopy and x-ray diffraction in the early 1980's, subsequent progress has been slow. Much of the current understanding of the structure-function relations of connexin channels is based on two crystal structures of Cx26 gap junction channels. Refinement of crystal structure by all-atom molecular dynamics and incorporation of charge changing protein modifications has resulted in an atomic model of the open state that arguably corresponds to the physiologic open state. Obtaining validated atomic models of voltage-dependent closed states is more challenging, as there are currently no methods to solve protein structure while a stable voltage gradient is applied across the length of an oriented channel. It is widely believed that the best approach to solve the atomic structure of a voltage-gated closed ion channel is to apply different but complementary experimental and computational methods and to use the resulting information to derive a consensus atomic structure that is then subjected to rigorous validation. In this paper, we summarize our efforts to obtain and validate atomic models of the open and voltage-driven closed states of undocked connexin hemichannels. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Gap Junction Proteins edited by Jean Claude Herve.

The S1 helix critically regulates the finely tuned gating of Kv11.1 channels

Congenital mutations in the cardiac Kv11.1 channel can cause long QT syndrome type 2 (LQTS2), a heart rhythm disorder associated with sudden cardiac death. Mutations act either by reducing protein expression at the membrane and/or by perturbing the intricate gating properties of Kv11.1 channels. A number of clinical LQTS2-associated mutations have been reported in the first transmembrane segment (S1) of Kv11.1 channels, but the role of this region of the channel is largely unexplored. In part, this is due to problems defining the extent of the S1 helix, as a consequence of its low sequence homology with other Kv family members. Here, we used NMR spectroscopy and electrophysiological characterization to show that the S1 of Kv11.1 channels extends seven helical turns, from Pro-405 to Phe-431, and is flanked by unstructured loops. Functional analysis suggests that pre-S1 loop residues His-402 and Tyr-403 play an important role in regulating the kinetics and voltage dependence of channel activation and deactivation. Multiple residues within the S1 helix also play an important role in fine-tuning the voltage dependence of activation, regulating slow deactivation, and modulating C-type inactivation of Kv11.1 channels. Analyses of LQTS2-associated mutations in the pre-S1 loop or S1 helix of Kv11.1 channels demonstrate perturbations to both protein expression and most gating transitions. Thus, S1 region mutations would reduce both the action potential repolarizing current passed by Kv11.1 channels in cardiac myocytes, as well as the current passed in response to premature depolarizations that normally helps protect against the formation of ectopic beats.

Independent movement of the voltage sensors in KV2.1/KV6.4 heterotetramers

Heterotetramer voltage-gated K⁺ (K_V) channels K_V2.1/K_V6.4 display a gating charge-voltage (Q_V) distribution composed by two separate components. We use state dependent chemical accessibility to cysteines substituted in either K_V2.1 or K_V6.4 to assess the voltage sensor movements of each subunit. By comparing the voltage dependences of chemical modification and gating charge displacement, here we show that each gating charge component corresponds to a specific subunit forming the heterotetramer. The voltage sensors from K_V6.4 subunits move at more negative potentials than the voltage sensors belonging to K_V2.1 subunits. These results indicate that the voltage sensors from the tetrameric channels move independently. In addition, our data shows that 75% of the total charge is attributed to K_V2.1, while 25% to K_V6.4. Thus, the most parsimonious model for K_V2.1/K_V6.4 channels’ stoichiometry is 3:1.

Voltage-Dependent Gating: Novel Insights from KCNQ1 Channels

Gating of voltage-dependent cation channels involves three general molecular processes: voltage sensor activation, sensor-pore coupling, and pore opening. KCNQ1 is a voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channel whose distinctive properties have provided novel insights on fundamental principles of voltage-dependent gating. 1) Similar to other Kv channels, KCNQ1 voltage sensor activation undergoes two resolvable steps; but, unique to KCNQ1, the pore opens at both the intermediate and activated state of voltage sensor activation. The voltage sensor-pore coupling differs in the intermediate-open and the activated-open states, resulting in changes of open pore properties during voltage sensor activation. 2) The voltage sensor-pore coupling and pore opening require the membrane lipid PIP2 and intracellular ATP, respectively, as cofactors, thus voltage-dependent gating is dependent on multiple stimuli, including the binding of intracellular signaling molecules. These mechanisms underlie the extraordinary KCNE1 subunit modification of the KCNQ1 channel and have significant physiological implications.

Atomic mutagenesis in ion channels with engineered stoichiometry

C-type inactivation of potassium channels fine-tunes the electrical signaling in excitable cells through an internal timing mechanism that is mediated by a hydrogen bond network in the channels' selectively filter. Previously, we used nonsense suppression to highlight the role of the conserved Trp434-Asp447 indole hydrogen bond in Shaker potassium channels with a non-hydrogen bonding homologue of tryptophan, Ind (Pless et al., 2013). Here, molecular dynamics simulations indicate that the Trp434Ind hydrogen bonding partner, Asp447, unexpectedly 'flips out' towards the extracellular environment, allowing water to penetrate the space behind the selectivity filter while simultaneously reducing the local negative electrostatic charge. Additionally, a protein engineering approach is presented whereby split intein sequences are flanked by endoplasmic reticulum retention/retrieval motifs (ERret) are incorporated into the N- or C- termini of Shaker monomers or within sodium channels two-domain fragments. This system enabled stoichiometric control of Shaker monomers and the encoding of multiple amino acids within a channel tetramer.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.18976.001

The allosteric switching mechanism in bacteriophage MS2

We use all-atom simulations to elucidate the mechanisms underlying conformational switching and allostery within the coat protein of the bacteriophage MS2. Assembly of most icosahedral virus capsids requires that the capsid protein adopts different conformations at precise locations within the capsid. It has been shown that a 19 nucleotide stem loop (TR) from the MS2 genome acts as an allosteric effector, guiding conformational switching of the coat protein during capsid assembly. Since the principal conformational changes occur far from the TR binding site, it is important to understand the molecular mechanism underlying this allosteric communication. To this end, we use all-atom simulations with explicit water combined with a path sampling technique to sample the MS2 coat protein conformational transition, in the presence and absence of TR-binding. The calculations find that TR binding strongly alters the transition free energy profile, leading to a switch in the favored conformation. We discuss changes in molecular interactions responsible for this shift. We then identify networks of amino acids with correlated motions to reveal the mechanism by which effects of TR binding span the protein. We find that TR binding strongly affects residues located at the 5-fold and quasi-sixfold interfaces in the assembled capsid, suggesting a mechanism by which the TR binding could direct formation of the native capsid geometry. The analysis predicts amino acids whose substitution by mutagenesis could alter populations of the conformational substates or their transition rates.

Allosteric substrate switching in a voltage-sensing lipid phosphatase

Allostery provides a critical control over enzyme activity, biasing the catalytic site between inactive and active states. We find the Ciona intestinalis voltage-sensing phosphatase (Ci-VSP), which modifies phosphoinositide signaling lipids (PIPs), to have not one but two sequential active states with distinct substrate specificities, whose occupancy is allosterically controlled by sequential conformations of the voltage sensing domain (VSD). Using fast FRET reporters of PIPs to monitor enzyme activity and voltage clamp fluorometry to monitor conformational changes in the VSD, we find that Ci-VSP switches from inactive to a PIP₃-preferring active state when the VSD undergoes an initial voltage sensing motion and then into a second PIP₂-preferring active state when the VSD activates fully. This novel 2-step allosteric control over a dual specificity enzyme enables voltage to shape PIP concentrations in time, and provides a mechanism for the complex modulation of PIP-regulated ion channels, transporters, cell motility and endo/exocytosis.

Gating pore currents are defects in common with two Nav1.5 mutations in patients with mixed arrhythmias and dilated cardiomyopathy

Na_v1.5 channels bearing voltage-sensor domain mutations associated with atypical cardiac arrhythmias and dilated cardiomyopathy generate gating pore currents.

The gating pore current, also called omega current, consists of a cation leak through the typically nonconductive voltage-sensor domain (VSD) of voltage-gated ion channels. Although the study of gating pore currents has refined our knowledge of the structure and the function of voltage-gated ion channels, their implication in cardiac disorders has not been established. Two Na_v1.5 mutations (R222Q and R225W) located in the VSD are associated with atypical clinical phenotypes involving complex arrhythmias and dilated cardiomyopathy. Using the patch-clamp technique, in silico mutagenesis, and molecular dynamic simulations, we tested the hypothesis that these two mutations may generate gating pore currents, potentially accounting for their clinical phenotypes. Our findings suggest that the gating pore current generated by the R222Q and R225W mutations could constitute the underlying pathological mechanism that links Na_v1.5 VSD mutations with human cardiac arrhythmias and dilatation of cardiac chambers.

Atomic basis for therapeutic activation of neuronal potassium channels

Retigabine is a recently approved anticonvulsant that acts by potentiating neuronal M-current generated by KCNQ2–5 channels, interacting with a conserved Trp residue in the channel pore domain. Using unnatural amino-acid mutagenesis, we subtly altered the properties of this Trp to reveal specific chemical interactions required for retigabine action. Introduction of a non-natural isosteric H-bond-deficient Trp analogue abolishes channel potentiation, indicating that retigabine effects rely strongly on formation of a H-bond with the conserved pore Trp. Supporting this model, substitution with fluorinated Trp analogues, with increased H-bonding propensity, strengthens retigabine potency. In addition, potency of numerous retigabine analogues correlates with the negative electrostatic surface potential of a carbonyl/carbamate oxygen atom present in most KCNQ activators. These findings functionally pinpoint an atomic-scale interaction essential for effects of retigabine and provide stringent constraints that may guide rational improvement of the emerging drug class of KCNQ channel activators.

The antiepileptic drug retigabine potentiates neuronal KCNQ potassium channels. Here, the authors use a combination of unnatural amino acid mutagenesis and electrophysiology to show that retigabine acts by hydrogen bonding with a tryptophan indole nitrogen in the channel pore.

Tracking S4 movement by gating pore currents in the bacterial sodium channel NaChBac

Comparison of the kinetics and voltage dependence of gating pore current conducted by S4 gating charge mutants supports the sliding-helix model of voltage sensor function and elucidates the pathogenic mechanisms underlying periodic paralysis syndromes.

Voltage-gated sodium channels mediate the initiation and propagation of action potentials in excitable cells. Transmembrane segment S4 of voltage-gated sodium channels resides in a gating pore where it senses the membrane potential and controls channel gating. Substitution of individual S4 arginine gating charges (R1–R3) with smaller amino acids allows ionic currents to flow through the mutant gating pore, and these gating pore currents are pathogenic in some skeletal muscle periodic paralysis syndromes. The voltage dependence of gating pore currents provides information about the transmembrane position of the gating charges as S4 moves in response to membrane potential. Here we studied gating pore current in mutants of the homotetrameric bacterial sodium channel NaChBac in which individual arginine gating charges were replaced by cysteine. Gating pore current was observed for each mutant channel, but with different voltage-dependent properties. Mutating the first (R1C) or second (R2C) arginine to cysteine resulted in gating pore current at hyperpolarized membrane potentials, where the channels are in resting states, but not at depolarized potentials, where the channels are activated. Conversely, the R3C gating pore is closed at hyperpolarized membrane potentials and opens with channel activation. Negative conditioning pulses revealed time-dependent deactivation of the R3C gating pore at the most hyperpolarized potentials. Our results show sequential voltage dependence of activation of gating pore current from R1 to R3 and support stepwise outward movement of the substituted cysteines through the narrow portion of the gating pore that is sealed by the arginine side chains in the wild-type channel. This pattern of voltage dependence of gating pore current is consistent with a sliding movement of the S4 helix through the gating pore. Through comparison with high-resolution models of the voltage sensor of bacterial sodium channels, these results shed light on the structural basis for pathogenic gating pore currents in periodic paralysis syndromes.

A Conserved Residue Cluster That Governs Kinetics of ATP-dependent Gating of Kir6.2 Potassium Channels

ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels are heteromultimeric complexes of an inwardly rectifying Kir channel (Kir6.x) and sulfonylurea receptors. Their regulation by intracellular ATP and ADP generates electrical signals in response to changes in cellular metabolism. We investigated channel elements that control the kinetics of ATP-dependent regulation of KATP (Kir6.2 + SUR1) channels using rapid concentration jumps. WT Kir6.2 channels re-open after rapid washout of ATP with a time constant of ∼60 ms. Extending similar kinetic measurements to numerous mutants revealed fairly modest effects on gating kinetics despite significant changes in ATP sensitivity and open probability. However, we identified a pair of highly conserved neighboring amino acids (Trp-68 and Lys-170) that control the rate of channel opening and inhibition in response to ATP. Paradoxically, mutations of Trp-68 or Lys-170 markedly slow the kinetics of channel opening (500 and 700 ms for W68L and K170N, respectively), while increasing channel open probability. Examining the functional effects of these residues using φ value analysis revealed a steep negative slope. This finding implies that these residues play a role in lowering the transition state energy barrier between open and closed channel states. Using unnatural amino acid incorporation, we demonstrate the requirement for a planar amino acid at Kir6.2 position 68 for normal channel gating, which is potentially necessary to localize the ϵ-amine of Lys-170 in the phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate-binding site. Overall, our findings identify a discrete pair of highly conserved residues with an essential role for controlling gating kinetics of Kir channels.

Domain-domain interactions determine the gating, permeation, pharmacology, and subunit modulation of the IKs ion channel

Voltage-gated ion channels generate electrical currents that control muscle contraction, encode neuronal information, and trigger hormonal release. Tissue-specific expression of accessory (β) subunits causes these channels to generate currents with distinct properties. In the heart, KCNQ1 voltage-gated potassium channels coassemble with KCNE1 β-subunits to generate the I_Ks current (Barhanin et al., 1996; Sanguinetti et al., 1996), an important current for maintenance of stable heart rhythms. KCNE1 significantly modulates the gating, permeation, and pharmacology of KCNQ1 (Wrobel et al., 2012; Sun et al., 2012; Abbott, 2014). These changes are essential for the physiological role of I_Ks (Silva and Rudy, 2005); however, after 18 years of study, no coherent mechanism explaining how KCNE1 affects KCNQ1 has emerged. Here we provide evidence of such a mechanism, whereby, KCNE1 alters the state-dependent interactions that functionally couple the voltage-sensing domains (VSDs) to the pore.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03606.001

Cells are surrounded by a membrane that prevents charged molecules from flowing directly into or out of the cell. Instead ions move through channel proteins within the cell membrane. Most ion channel proteins are selective and only allow one or a few types of ion to cross. Ion channels can also be ‘gated’, and have a central pore that can open or close to allow or stop the flow of selected ions. This gating can be affected by the channel sensing changes in conditions, such as changes in the voltage across the cell membrane.

Research conducted more than half a century ago—before the discovery of channel proteins—led to a mathematical model of the flow of potassium ions across a membrane in response to changes in voltage. This model made a number of assumptions, many of which are still widely accepted. However, Zaydman et al. have now called into question some of the assumptions of this model.

Based on the original model, it has been long assumed that the voltage-sensing domains that open or close the central pore in response to changes in voltage must be fully activated to allow the channel to open. It had also been assumed that the voltage-sensing domains do not affect the flow of ions once the channel is open. Zaydman et al. have now shown that these assumptions are not valid for a specific voltage-gated potassium channel called KCNQ1. Instead, this ion channel opens when its voltage-sensing domains are either partially or fully activated. Zaydman found that the intermediate-open and activated-open states had different preferences for passing various types of ion; therefore, the gating of the channel and the flow of ions through the open channel are both dependent on the state of the voltage-sensing domains. This is in direct contrast to what had previously been assumed.

The original model cannot reproduce the gating of KCNQ1, nor can any other established model. Therefore, Zaydman et al. devised a new model to understand how the interactions between different states of the voltage-sensing domains and the pore lead to gating. Zaydman et al. then used their model to address how another protein called KCNE1 is able to alter properties of the KCNQ1 channel.

KCNE1 is a protein that is expressed in the heart muscle cell and mutations affecting KCNQ1 or KCNE1 have been associated with potentially fatal heart conditions. Based on the assumptions of the original model, it had been difficult to understand how KCNE1 was able to affect different properties of the KCNQ1 channel. Thus, for nearly 20 years it has been debated whether KCNE1 primarily affects the activation of the voltage-sensing domains or the opening of the pore. Zaydman et al. found instead that KCNE1 alters the interactions between the voltage-sensing domains and the pore, which prevented the intermediate-open state and modified the properties of the activated-open state. This mechanism provides one of the most complete explanations for the action of the KCNE1 protein.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03606.002

Asymmetric functional contributions of acidic and aromatic side chains in sodium channel voltage-sensor domains

Conserved acidic and aromatic residues in the four sodium channel voltage-sensor domains make domain-specific functional contributions.

Voltage-gated sodium (Na_V) channels mediate electrical excitability in animals. Despite strong sequence conservation among the voltage-sensor domains (VSDs) of closely related voltage-gated potassium (K_V) and Na_V channels, the functional contributions of individual side chains in Na_v VSDs remain largely enigmatic. To this end, natural and unnatural side chain substitutions were made in the S2 hydrophobic core (HC), the extracellular negative charge cluster (ENC), and the intracellular negative charge cluster (INC) of the four VSDs of the skeletal muscle sodium channel isoform (Na_V1.4). The results show that the highly conserved aromatic side chain constituting the S2 HC makes distinct functional contributions in each of the four Na_V domains. No obvious cation–pi interaction exists with nearby S4 charges in any domain, and natural and unnatural mutations at these aromatic sites produce functional phenotypes that are different from those observed previously in K_v VSDs. In contrast, and similar to results obtained with K_v channels, individually neutralizing acidic side chains with synthetic derivatives and with natural amino acid substitutions in the INC had little or no effect on the voltage dependence of activation in any of the four domains. Interestingly, countercharge was found to play an important functional role in the ENC of DI and DII, but not DIII and DIV. These results suggest that electrostatic interactions with S4 gating charges are unlikely in the INC and only relevant in the ENC of DI and DII. Collectively, our data highlight domain-specific functional contributions of highly conserved side chains in Na_V VSDs.

Capturing distinct KCNQ2 channel resting states by metal ion bridges in the voltage-sensor domain

Although crystal structures of various voltage-gated K(+) (Kv) and Na(+) channels have provided substantial information on the activated conformation of the voltage-sensing domain (VSD), the topology of the VSD in its resting conformation remains highly debated. Numerous studies have investigated the VSD resting state in the Kv Shaker channel; however, few studies have explored this issue in other Kv channels. Here, we investigated the VSD resting state of KCNQ2, a K(+) channel subunit belonging to the KCNQ (Kv7) subfamily of Kv channels. KCNQ2 can coassemble with the KCNQ3 subunit to mediate the IM current that regulates neuronal excitability. In humans, mutations in KCNQ2 are associated with benign neonatal forms of epilepsy or with severe epileptic encephalopathy. We introduced cysteine mutations into the S4 transmembrane segment of the KCNQ2 VSD and determined that external application of Cd(2+) profoundly reduced the current amplitude of S4 cysteine mutants S195C, R198C, and R201C. Based on reactivity with the externally accessible endogenous cysteine C106 in S1, we infer that each of the above S4 cysteine mutants forms Cd(2+) bridges to stabilize a channel closed state. Disulfide bonds and metal bridges constrain the S4 residues S195, R198, and R201 near C106 in S1 in the resting state, and experiments using concatenated tetrameric constructs indicate that this occurs within the same VSD. KCNQ2 structural models suggest that three distinct resting channel states have been captured by the formation of different S4-S1 Cd(2+) bridges. Collectively, this work reveals that residue C106 in S1 can be very close to several N-terminal S4 residues for stabilizing different KCNQ2 resting conformations.

A distinct sodium channel voltage-sensor locus determines insect selectivity of the spider toxin Dc1a

β-Diguetoxin-Dc1a (Dc1a) is a toxin from the desert bush spider Diguetia canities that incapacitates insects at concentrations that are non-toxic to mammals. Dc1a promotes opening of German cockroach voltage-gated sodium (Na_v) channels (BgNa_v1), whereas human Na_v channels are insensitive. Here, by transplanting commonly targeted S3b-S4 paddle motifs within BgNa_v1 voltage sensors into K_v2.1, we find that Dc1a interacts with the domain II voltage sensor. In contrast, Dc1a has little effect on sodium currents mediated by PaNa_v1 channels from the American cockroach even though their domain II paddle motifs are identical. When exploring regions responsible for PaNa_v1 resistance to Dc1a, we identified two residues within the BgNa_v1 domain II S1–S2 loop that when mutated to their PaNa_v1 counterparts drastically reduce toxin susceptibility. Overall, our results reveal a distinct region within insect Na_v channels that helps determine Dc1a sensitivity, aconcept that will be valuable for the design of insect-selective insecticides.

Using multiscale preconditioning to accelerate the convergence of iterative molecular calculations

Iterative procedures for optimizing properties of molecular models often converge slowly owing to the computational cost of accurately representing features of interest. Here, we introduce a preconditioning scheme that allows one to use a less expensive model to guide exploration of the energy landscape of a more expensive model and thus speed the discovery of locally stable states of the latter. We illustrate our approach in the contexts of energy minimization and the string method for finding transition pathways. The relation of the method to other multilevel simulation techniques and possible extensions are discussed.

Moving gating charges through the gating pore in a Kv channel voltage sensor

Voltage sensor domains (VSDs) regulate ion channels and enzymes by transporting electrically charged residues across a hydrophobic VSD constriction called the gating pore or hydrophobic plug. How the gating pore controls the gating charge movement presently remains debated. Here, using saturation mutagenesis and detailed analysis of gating currents from gating pore mutations in the Shaker Kv channel, we identified statistically highly significant correlations between VSD function and physicochemical properties of gating pore residues. A necessary small residue at position S240 in S1 creates a "steric gap" that enables an intracellular access pathway for the transport of the S4 Arg residues. In addition, the stabilization of the depolarized VSD conformation, a hallmark for most Kv channels, requires large side chains at positions F290 in S2 and F244 in S1 acting as "molecular clamps," and a hydrophobic side chain at position I237 in S1 acting as a local intracellular hydrophobic barrier. Finally, both size and hydrophobicity of I287 are important to control the main VSD energy barrier underlying transitions between resting and active states. Taken together, our study emphasizes the contribution of several gating pore residues to catalyze the gating charge transfer. This work paves the way toward understanding physicochemical principles underlying conformational dynamics in voltage sensors.

Exploring the conformational transitions of biomolecular systems using a simple two-state anisotropic network model

Biomolecular conformational transitions are essential to biological functions. Most experimental methods report on the long-lived functional states of biomolecules, but information about the transition pathways between these stable states is generally scarce. Such transitions involve short-lived conformational states that are difficult to detect experimentally. For this reason, computational methods are needed to produce plausible hypothetical transition pathways that can then be probed experimentally. Here we propose a simple and computationally efficient method, called ANMPathway, for constructing a physically reasonable pathway between two endpoints of a conformational transition. We adopt a coarse-grained representation of the protein and construct a two-state potential by combining two elastic network models (ENMs) representative of the experimental structures resolved for the endpoints. The two-state potential has a cusp hypersurface in the configuration space where the energies from both the ENMs are equal. We first search for the minimum energy structure on the cusp hypersurface and then treat it as the transition state. The continuous pathway is subsequently constructed by following the steepest descent energy minimization trajectories starting from the transition state on each side of the cusp hypersurface. Application to several systems of broad biological interest such as adenylate kinase, ATP-driven calcium pump SERCA, leucine transporter and glutamate transporter shows that ANMPathway yields results in good agreement with those from other similar methods and with data obtained from all-atom molecular dynamics simulations, in support of the utility of this simple and efficient approach. Notably the method provides experimentally testable predictions, including the formation of non-native contacts during the transition which we were able to detect in two of the systems we studied. An open-access web server has been created to deliver ANMPathway results.

Many biomolecules are like tiny molecular machines that need to change their shapes and visit many states to perform their biological functions. For a complete molecular understanding of a biological process, one needs to have information on the relevant stable states of the system in question, as well as the pathways by which the system travels from one state to another. We report here an efficient computational method that uses the knowledge of experimental structures of a pair of stable states in order to construct an energetically favoravle pathway between them. We adopt a simple representation of the molecular system by replacing the atoms with beads connected by springs and constructing an energy function with two minima around the end-states. We searched for the structure with highest energy that the system is most likely to visit during the transition and created two paths starting from this structure and proceeding toward the end-states. The combined result of these two paths is the minimum energy pathway between the two stable states. We apply this method to study important structural changes in one enzyme and three large proteins that transport small molecules and ions across the cell membrane.

Comparison between Mean Forces and Swarms-of-Trajectories String Methods

The original formulation of the string method in collective variable space is compared with a recent variant called string method with swarms-of-trajectories. The assumptions made in the original method are revisited and the significance of the minimum free energy path (MFEP) is discussed in the context of reactive events. These assumptions are compared to those made in the string method with swarms-of-trajectories, and shown to be equivalent in a certain regime: in particular an expression for the path identified by the swarms-of-trajectories method is given and shown to be closely related to the MFEP. Finally, the algorithmic aspects of both methods are compared.

The voltage sensor module in sodium channels

The mechanism by which voltage-gated ion channels respond to changes in membrane polarization during action potential signaling in excitable cells has been the subject of research attention since the original description of voltage-dependent sodium and potassium flux in the squid giant axon. The cloning of ion channel genes and the identification of point mutations associated with channelopathy diseases in muscle and brain has facilitated an electrophysiological approach to the study of ion channels. Experimental approaches to the study of voltage gating have incorporated the use of thiosulfonate reagents to test accessibility, fluorescent probes, and toxins to define domain-specific roles of voltage-sensing S4 segments. Crystallography, structural and homology modeling, and molecular dynamics simulations have added computational approaches to study the relationship of channel structure to function. These approaches have tested models of voltage sensor translocation in response to membrane depolarization and incorporate the role of negative countercharges in the S1 to S3 segments to define our present understanding of the mechanism by which the voltage sensor module dictates gating particle permissiveness in excitable cells.

Hydrogen bonds as molecular timers for slow inactivation in voltage-gated potassium channels

Voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels enable potassium efflux and membrane repolarization in excitable tissues. Many Kv channels undergo a progressive loss of ion conductance in the presence of a prolonged voltage stimulus, termed slow inactivation, but the atomic determinants that regulate the kinetics of this process remain obscure. Using a combination of synthetic amino acid analogs and concatenated channel subunits we establish two H-bonds near the extracellular surface of the channel that endow Kv channels with a mechanism to time the entry into slow inactivation: an intra-subunit H-bond between Asp447 and Trp434 and an inter-subunit H-bond connecting Tyr445 to Thr439. Breaking of either interaction triggers slow inactivation by means of a local disruption in the selectivity filter, while severing the Tyr445–Thr439 H-bond is likely to communicate this conformational change to the adjacent subunit(s).

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01289.001

Proteins are made from long chains of smaller molecules, called amino acids. These chains twist and bend into complex three-dimensional shapes, and sometimes two or more chains, or ‘subunits’, are packed into a protein. These shapes are often held together by hydrogen bonds between some of the amino acids. Moreover, since the shape of a protein defines its function, some proteins must be able to switch between different shapes to function properly.

Ion channels are proteins that form pores through cell membranes, allowing ions to flow in and out of the cell. Potassium ion channels, which are found in neurons and heart muscle cells, have four subunits that move to open or close the central pore in response to various signals.

The closing of the channels can be ‘fast’ or ‘slow’. When the channels are closed quickly (called fast inactivation), a small part of the protein ‘plugs’ the pore from the inside of the cell. However, the mechanism behind slow inactivation remained obscure. It was thought to involve hydrogen bonds between some of the bulky amino acids that are found at the edge the pore. However, testing this hypothesis—by replacing these amino acids with alternatives that cannot form hydrogen bonds—was tricky because none of the 20 naturally occurring amino acids were alike enough to be suitable replacements.

Now, Pless et al. have overcome this limitation by using synthetic amino acids that form hydrogen bonds that are stronger or weaker than those formed by the amino acids they are replacing. The results suggest that two types of hydrogen bond keep the pore open: one is a bond between two amino acids in the same subunit, and the other is an inter-subunit bond between amino acids in neighbouring subunits. Pless et al. suggest that opening the channel causes small movements that gradually weaken, and eventually break, these bonds in one of the four subunits. Specific amino acids within the pore are then free to twist and—via a cascade of similar movements in the other three subunits—block the pore and halt the flow of ions. As such, these networks of hydrogen bonds act as pre-set breaking points allowing channels to close, even in response to continued stimulation.

Since regulated potassium channel activity underpins healthy neurons and heart muscles; understanding what controls their inactivation rate may lead to new approaches to tune their activity and treatments for important diseases.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01289.002

The gating charge should not be estimated by fitting a two-state model to a Q-V curve

The voltage dependence of charges in voltage-sensitive proteins, typically displayed as charge versus voltage (Q-V) curves, is often quantified by fitting it to a simple two-state Boltzmann function. This procedure overlooks the fact that the fitted parameters, including the total charge, may be incorrect if the charge is moving in multiple steps. We present here the derivation of a general formulation for Q-V curves from multistate sequential models, including the case of infinite number of states. We demonstrate that the commonly used method to estimate the charge per molecule using a simple Boltzmann fit is not only inadequate, but in most cases, it underestimates the moving charge times the fraction of the field.

Molecular bases for the asynchronous activation of sodium and potassium channels required for nerve impulse generation

Most action potentials are produced by the sequential activation of voltage-gated sodium (Nav) and potassium (Kv) channels. This is mainly achieved by the rapid conformational rearrangement of voltage-sensor (VS) modules in Nav channels, with activation kinetics up to 6-fold faster than Shaker-type Kv channels. Here, using mutagenesis and gating current measurements, we show that a 3-fold acceleration of the VS kinetics in Nav versus Shaker Kv channels is produced by the hydrophilicity of two "speed-control" residues located in the S2 and S4 segments in Nav domains I-III. An additional 2-fold acceleration of the Nav VS kinetics is provided by the coexpression of the β1 subunit, ubiquitously found in mammal tissues. This study uncovers the molecular bases responsible for the differential activation of Nav versus Kv channels, a fundamental prerequisite for the genesis of action potentials.

Sensing charges of the Ciona intestinalis voltage-sensing phosphatase

Voltage control over enzymatic activity in voltage-sensitive phosphatases (VSPs) is conferred by a voltage-sensing domain (VSD) located in the N terminus. These VSDs are constituted by four putative transmembrane segments (S1 to S4) resembling those found in voltage-gated ion channels. The putative fourth segment (S4) of the VSD contains positive residues that likely function as voltage-sensing elements. To study in detail how these residues sense the plasma membrane potential, we have focused on five arginines in the S4 segment of the Ciona intestinalis VSP (Ci-VSP). After implementing a histidine scan, here we show that four arginine-to-histidine mutants, namely R223H to R232H, mediate voltage-dependent proton translocation across the membrane, indicating that these residues transit through the hydrophobic core of Ci-VSP as a function of the membrane potential. These observations indicate that the charges carried by these residues are sensing charges. Furthermore, our results also show that the electrical field in VSPs is focused in a narrow hydrophobic region that separates the extracellular and intracellular space and constitutes the energy barrier for charge crossing.

An emerging consensus on voltage-dependent gating from computational modeling and molecular dynamics simulations

Developing an understanding of the mechanism of voltage-gated ion channels in molecular terms requires knowledge of the structure of the active and resting conformations. Although the active-state conformation is known from x-ray structures, an atomic resolution structure of a voltage-dependent ion channel in the resting state is not currently available. This has motivated various efforts at using computational modeling methods and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to provide the missing information. A comparison of recent computational results reveals an emerging consensus on voltage-dependent gating from computational modeling and MD simulations. This progress is highlighted in the broad context of preexisting work about voltage-gated channels.

AUTOMATED FORCE FIELD PARAMETERIZATION FOR NON-POLARIZABLE AND POLARIZABLE ATOMIC MODELS BASED ON AB INITIO TARGET DATA

Classical molecular dynamics (MD) simulations based on atomistic models are increasingly used to study a wide range of biological systems. A prerequisite for meaningful results from such simulations is an accurate molecular mechanical force field. Most biomolecular simulations are currently based on the widely used AMBER and CHARMM force fields, which were parameterized and optimized to cover a small set of basic compounds corresponding to the natural amino acids and nucleic acid bases. Atomic models of additional compounds are commonly generated by analogy to the parameter set of a given force field. While this procedure yields models that are internally consistent, the accuracy of the resulting models can be limited. In this work, we propose a method, General Automated Atomic Model Parameterization (GAAMP), for generating automatically the parameters of atomic models of small molecules using the results from ab initio quantum mechanical (QM) calculations as target data. Force fields that were previously developed for a wide range of model compounds serve as initial guess, although any of the final parameter can be optimized. The electrostatic parameters (partial charges, polarizabilities and shielding) are optimized on the basis of QM electrostatic potential (ESP) and, if applicable, the interaction energies between the compound and water molecules. The soft dihedrals are automatically identified and parameterized by targeting QM dihedral scans as well as the energies of stable conformers. To validate the approach, the solvation free energy is calculated for more than 200 small molecules and MD simulations of 3 different proteins are carried out.