Genetic, metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses of the cotton yellow anther trait

In the fiber industry, cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) is an important crop. One of the most important morphology traits of plants is the color of the anthers, is closely related to pollen fertility and stress resistance. Upland cotton anthers appear white, while island cotton and many wild cotton species have yellow anthers. Carotenoids are natural pigments in plants which involved in many metabolic processes, including photosynthesis, photoprotection, photomorphogenesis, growth and development. Here, we characterized the yellow anther trait of G. hirsutum. Carotenoid and flavonoid profiles in the yellow anthers were greatly altered compared to that in the white anthers, indicating that both carotenoids and flavonoids contribute to the yellow anther phenotype. Map-based cloning identified GhYA (GH_A05G4013) encoding a phytoene synthase to be the candidate gene responsible for anther coloration. GhYA is predominantly expressed in anthers, with its expression level gradually decreasing with the development of anthers. Haplotype analysis revealed that white anthers are associated with two haplotypes, with X74 belonging to HAP1. Through evolutionary analysis, it was found that although there are many white anther Germplasm in upland cotton, the two types of white anther haplotypes were mutated from yellow anthers respectively. Comparative transcriptome analysis between the yellow anther and white anther accessions revealed differentially expressed genes related to both the carotenoid and flavonoid biosynthesis pathways, in line with the changed profiles of the two types of metabolites in yellow anthers; meanwhile, it also indicates potential cross-talk between the flavonoid and carotenoid pathways. According to the results, the PSY gene is critical for the regulation of carotenoids accumulation in cotton anthers.

Dorsal and Ventral Plumage Coloration Evolve as Distinct Modules with Different Environmental Correlations

AbstractMany animals exhibit contrast between their dorsal coloration and their ventral coloration. If selection acts differently on dorsal versus ventral coloration, ancestral covariance between these traits should break down, eventually leading to independent modules of trait evolution. Here, we compare the evolution of feather color across body regions for a clade of Australasian songbirds (Meliphagoidea). We find evidence for three modules of covarying color regions. Among these modules, ventral feathers evolve with high lability, evolving at three times the rate of dorsal plumage and 20 times the rate of flight feathers. While both dorsal plumage and ventral plumage are darker in areas with more precipitation and vegetation, we find that dorsal plumage is twice as similar to colors in satellite photos of background substrates. Overall, differential selection on ventral and dorsal colors likely maintains these as distinct modules over evolutionary timescales-a novel explanation for dorsoventral contrast in pigmentation.

Feather function and the evolution of birds

The ability of feathers to perform many functions either simultaneously or at different times throughout the year or life of a bird is integral to the evolutionary history of birds. Many studies focus on single functions of feathers, but any given feather performs many functions over its lifetime. These functions necessarily interact with each other throughout the evolution and development of birds, so our knowledge of avian evolution is incomplete without understanding the multifunctionality of feathers, and how different functions may act synergistically or antagonistically during natural selection. Here, we review how feather functions interact with avian evolution, with a focus on recent technological and discovery-based advances. By synthesising research into feather functions over hierarchical scales (pattern, arrangement, macrostructure, microstructure, nanostructure, molecules), we aim to provide a broad context for how the adaptability and multifunctionality of feathers have allowed birds to diversify into an astounding array of environments and life-history strategies. We suggest that future research into avian evolution involving feather function should consider multiple aspects of a feather, including multiple functions, seasonal wear and renewal, and ecological or mechanical interactions. With this more holistic view, processes such as the evolution of avian coloration and flight can be understood in a broader and more nuanced context.

Speciation rates are positively correlated with the rate of plumage color evolution in hummingbirds

A fascinating pattern in nature is the uneven distribution of biodiversity among clades, some with low species richness and phenotypic variation in contrast to others with remarkable species richness and phenotypic diversity. In animals, communication signals are crucial for intra- and interspecific interactions and are likely an important factor in speciation. However, evidence for the association between the evolution of such signals and speciation is mixed. In hummingbirds, plumage coloration is an important communication signal, particularly for mate selection. Here, using reflectance data for 237 hummingbird species (∼66% of total diversity), we demonstrate that color evolution rates are associated with speciation rates, and that differences among feather patches are consistent with an interplay between natural and sexual selection. We found that female color evolution rates of multiple plumage elements, including the gorget, were similar to those of males. Although male color evolution in this patch was associated with speciation, female gorget color evolution was not. In other patches, the relationship between speciation and color evolution rates was pervasive between sexes. We anticipate that future studies on animal communication will likely find that evolution of signaling traits of both sexes has played a vital role in generating signal and species diversity.

Long-term changes of plumage between urban and rural populations of white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys)

Urbanization is one of the most extreme forms of land transformation and results in changes to ecosystems and species compositions. As a result, there are strong directional selection pressures compared to nearby rural areas. Despite a surge in research on the different selection pressures on acoustic communication in urban and rural areas, there has been comparatively little investigation into traits involved with visual communication. We measured the plumage of museum specimens of white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys) from urban and adjacent rural habitats in San Francisco, CA, to assess the effects of divergent habitats on plumage. We found significant differences in dorsal plumage, but not crown plumage, between urban and rural populations that have been diverging over the past 100 years. Urban birds have increasingly darker and duller dorsal plumage, whereas rural birds in adjacent areas have plumage with richer hues and more color complexity. Our findings suggest a newly observed adaptation to urban environments by native species and suggest that many traits, in addition to acoustic signals, may be changing in response to urban selection pressures. Additional collections in urban areas are needed to explore likely divergences in plumage coloration between urban and rural environments.

Evolution of a conspicuous melanin-based ornament in gulls Laridae

Melanin- and carotenoid-based ornaments often signal different aspects of individual quality or similar components of quality under different environmental conditions and, thus, they may become evolutionarily integrated into a composite sexual trait. On the other hand, functionally and developmentally different characters (e.g. coloration characters of different developmental origin) are more likely to evolve independently from each other than more similar traits. Here, we examined evolutionary correlations between the occurrence of a conspicuous melanin-based ornament (hood) and carotenoid-based bare-part ornaments within gull family. We also aimed to identify major ecological, life-history and biogeographical predictors of hood occurrence and reconstruct evolutionary history of this ornament. We found that hood occurrence was associated with red or dark coloration of unfeathered traits (bill and legs), whereas combinations of hood with yellow carotenoid-based coloration of integument were evolutionarily avoided. Also, hood occurrence correlated negatively with the occurrence of other melanin-based plumage character (mantle). Breeding latitude and habitat were identified as major predictors of hood occurrence in gulls, as hoods were recorded more frequently in low-latitude and inland (rather than marine) species. Finally, our analysis provided support for evolutionary lability in hood occurrence, with a dominance of transitions towards hood loss in the evolutionary history of gulls. The results of our study provide one of the first evidence for a correlated evolution of melanin- and carotenoid-based ornaments in an avian lineage, which supports evolutionary modularity of developmentally and functionally different coloration traits.

Evolutionary design of a flexible, seasonally migratory, avian phenotype: why trade gizzard mass against pectoral muscle mass?

Migratory birds undergo impressive body remodelling over the course of an annual cycle. Prior to long-distance flights, red knots ( Calidris canutus islandica) reduce gizzard mass while increasing body mass and pectoral muscle mass. Although body mass and pectoral muscle mass are functionally linked via their joint effects on flight performance, gizzard and pectoral muscle mass are thought to be independently regulated. Current hypotheses for observed negative within-individual covariation between gizzard and pectoral muscle mass in free-living knots are based on a common factor (e.g. migration) simultaneously affecting both traits, and/or protein limitation forcing allocation decisions. We used diet manipulations to generate within-individual variation in gizzard mass and test for independence between gizzard and pectoral muscle mass within individuals outside the period of migration and under conditions of high protein availability. Contrary to our prediction, we observed a negative within-individual covariation between gizzard and pectoral muscle mass. We discuss this result as a potential outcome of an evolved mechanism underlying body remodelling associated with migration. Although our proposed mechanism requires empirical testing, this study echoes earlier calls for greater integration of studies of function and mechanism, and in particular, the need for more explicit consideration of the evolution of mechanisms underlying phenotypic design.

Ontogenetic trajectories of body coloration reveal its function as a multicomponent nonsenescent signal

The understanding of developmental patterns of body coloration is challenging because of the multicomponent nature of color signals and the multiple selective pressures acting upon them, which further depend on the sex of the bearer and area of display. Pigmentary colors are thought to be strongly involved in sexual selection, while structural colors are thought to generally associate with conspecifics interactions and improve the discrimination of pigmentary colors. Yet, it remains unclear whether age dependency in each color component is consistent with their potential function. Here, we address lifelong ontogenetic variation in three color components (i.e. UV, pigmentary, and skin background colors) in a birth cohort of common lizards Zootoca vivipara across three ventral body regions (i.e. throat, chest, and belly). All three color components developed sexual dichromatism, with males displaying stronger pigmentary and UV colors but weaker skin background coloration than females. The development of color components led to a stronger sexual dichromatism on the concealed ventral region than on the throat. No consistent signs of late-life decay in color components were found except for a deceleration of UV reflectance increase with age on the throat of males. These results suggest that body color components in common lizards are primarily nonsenescent sexual signals, but that the balance between natural and sexual selection may be altered by the conspicuousness of the area of display. These results further support the view that skin coloration is a composite trait constituted of multiple color components conveying multiple signals depending on age, sex, and body location.

Colour for Behavioural Success

Colour information not only helps sustain the survival of animal species by guiding sexual selection and foraging behaviour but also is an important factor in the cultural and technological development of our own species. This is illustrated by examples from the visual arts and from state-of-the-art imaging technology, where the strategic use of colour has become a powerful tool for guiding the planning and execution of interventional procedures. The functional role of colour information in terms of its potential benefits to behavioural success across the species is addressed in the introduction here to clarify why colour perception may have evolved to generate behavioural success. It is argued that evolutionary and environmental pressures influence not only colour trait production in the different species but also their ability to process and exploit colour information for goal-specific purposes. We then leap straight to the human primate with insight from current research on the facilitating role of colour cues on performance training with precision technology for image-guided surgical planning and intervention. It is shown that local colour cues in two-dimensional images generated by a surgical fisheye camera help individuals become more precise rapidly across a limited number of trial sets in simulator training for specific manual gestures with a tool. This facilitating effect of a local colour cue on performance evolution in a video-controlled simulator (pick-and-place) task can be explained in terms of colour-based figure-ground segregation facilitating attention to local image parts when more than two layers of subjective surface depth are present, as in all natural and surgical images.

Mate choice decision rules: Trait synergisms and preference shifts

An important and understudied question in sexual selection is how females evaluate information from multiple secondary sexual traits (SSTs), particularly when expression of traits is phenotypically uncorrelated. We performed mate choice experiments on zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata castanotis Gould) to evaluate two hypotheses: preference shifts (obstacles to choice using one trait increase chooser reliance on others) and trait synergisms (choice based on the sum/product of two or more independently varying traits). The first experiment, which employed males raised on diets that impact SST expression, supported the trait synergism hypothesis: overall, male pairing success was best predicted by synergisms involving beak color and cheek patch size. Results did not support the preference shift hypothesis. Results of a follow-up experiment that included males reared on a single diet, and in which male beak color and cheek patch size were manipulated, were also consistent with the trait synergism hypothesis. Results have implications for understanding the long-term persistence of multiple SSTs in populations and for the measurement of repeatability and heritability of mate preferences.

The transcriptomic basis of tissue- and nutrition-dependent sexual dimorphism in the beetle Onthophagus taurus

Sexual dimorphism accounts for a large fraction of intraspecific diversity. However, not all traits are equally sexually dimorphic; instead, individuals are mosaics of tissues that vary in their ability to exhibit dimorphism. Furthermore, the degree of a trait's sexual dimorphism is frequently environment‐dependent, with elaborate sexual dimorphism commonly being restricted to high nutritional conditions. Understanding the developmental basis and evolution of condition‐dependent sexual dimorphism can be critically informed by determining – across tissues and nutritional conditions – what sex‐biased genes are deployed and how they interact and translate into functional processes. Indeed, key theories concerning the evolution of condition‐dependent sexually dimorphic traits rest on assumptions regarding their developmental genetic underpinnings, yet, have largely gone unexamined by empirical studies. Here, we provide such evidence by investigating the transcriptomic basis of tissue‐ and nutrition‐dependent sexual dimorphism in the bull‐headed dung beetle Onthophagus taurus. Our findings suggest (1) that generating morphological sexual dimorphism requires sex‐biased gene expression in and developmental remodeling of both sexes, regardless of which sex exhibits externally visible trait exaggeration, (2) that although sexually dimorphic phenotypes are comprised of traits underlain by independent repertoires of sex‐biased gene expression, they act similarly at a functional level, and (3) that sexual dimorphism and condition‐dependence share common genetic underpinnings specifically in sexually‐selected traits.

Selection and inheritance of sexually dimorphic juvenile plumage coloration

Sexually dimorphic plumage coloration is widespread in birds and is generally thought to be a result of sexual selection for more ornamented males. Although many studies find an association between coloration and fitness related traits, few of these simultaneously examine selection and inheritance. Theory predicts that sex‐linked genetic variation can facilitate the evolution of dimorphism, and some empirical work supports this, but we still know very little about the extent of sex linkage of sexually dimorphic traits. We used a longitudinal study on juvenile Florida scrub‐jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens) to estimate strength of selection and autosomal and Z‐linked heritability of mean brightness, UV chroma, and hue. Although plumage coloration signals dominance in juveniles, there was no indication that plumage coloration was related to whether or not an individual bred or its lifetime reproductive success. While mean brightness and UV chroma are moderately heritable, hue is not. There was no evidence for sex‐linked inheritance of any trait with most of the variation explained by maternal effects. The genetic correlation between the sexes was high and not significantly different from unity. These results indicate that evolution of sexual dimorphism in this species is constrained by low sex‐linked heritability and high intersexual genetic correlation.

Elaborate visual and acoustic signals evolve independently in a large, phenotypically diverse radiation of songbirds

The concept of a macroevolutionary trade-off among sexual signals has a storied history in evolutionary biology. Theory predicts that if multiple sexual signals are costly for males to produce or maintain and females prefer a single, sexually selected trait, then an inverse correlation between sexual signal elaborations is expected among species. However, empirical evidence for what has been termed the 'transfer hypothesis' is mixed, which may reflect different selective pressures among lineages, evolutionary covariates or methodological differences among studies. Here, we examine interspecific correlations between song and plumage elaboration in a phenotypically diverse, widespread radiation of songbirds, the tanagers. The tanagers (Thraupidae) are the largest family of songbirds, representing nearly 10% of all songbirds. We assess variation in song and plumage elaboration across 301 species, representing the largest scale comparative study of multimodal sexual signalling to date. We consider whether evolutionary covariates, including habitat, structural and carotenoid-based coloration, and subfamily groupings influence the relationship between song and plumage elaboration. We find that song and plumage elaboration are uncorrelated when considering all tanagers, although the relationship between song and plumage complexity varies among subfamilies. Taken together, we find that elaborate visual and vocal sexual signals evolve independently among tanagers.

Analyzing visual signals as visual scenes

The study of visual signal design is gaining momentum as techniques for studying signals become more sophisticated and more freely available. In this paper we discuss methods for analyzing the color and form of visual signals, for integrating signal components into visual scenes, and for producing visual signal stimuli for use in psychophysical experiments. Our recommended methods aim to be rigorous, detailed, quantitative, objective, and where possible based on the perceptual representation of the intended signal receiver(s). As methods for analyzing signal color and luminance have been outlined in previous publications we focus on analyzing form information by discussing how statistical shape analysis (SSA) methods can be used to analyze signal shape, and spatial filtering to analyze repetitive patterns. We also suggest the use of vector-based approaches for integrating multiple signal components. In our opinion elliptical Fourier analysis (EFA) is the most promising technique for shape quantification but we await the results of empirical comparison of techniques and the development of new shape analysis methods based on the cognitive and perceptual representations of receivers. Our manuscript should serve as an introductory guide to those interested in measuring visual signals, and while our examples focus on primate signals, the methods are applicable to quantifying visual signals in most taxa.

Independent sources of condition dependency and multiple pathways determine a composite trait: lessons from carotenoid-based plumage colouration

Many colour ornaments are composite traits consisting of at least four components, which themselves may be more complex, determined by independent evolutionary pathways, and potentially being under different environmental control. To date, little evidence exists that several different components of colour elaboration are condition dependent and no direct evidence exists that different ornamental components are affected by different sources of variation. For example, in carotenoid-based plumage colouration, one of the best-known condition-dependent ornaments, colour elaboration stems from both condition-dependent pigment concentration and structural components. Some environmental flexibility of these components has been suggested, but specifically which and how they are affected remains unknown. Here, we tested whether multiple colour components may be condition dependent, by using a comprehensive 3 × 2 experimental design, in which we carotenoid supplemented and immune challenged great tit nestlings (Parus major) and quantified effects on different components of colouration. Plumage colouration was affected by an interaction between carotenoid availability and immune challenge. Path analyses showed that carotenoid supplementation increased plumage saturation via feather carotenoid concentration and via mechanisms unrelated to carotenoid deposition, while immune challenge affected feather length, but not carotenoid concentration. Thus, independent condition-dependent pathways, affected by different sources of variation, determine colour elaboration. This provides opportunities for the evolution of multiple signals within components of ornamental traits. This finding indicates that the selective forces shaping the evolution of different components of a composite trait and the trait's signal content may be more complex than believed so far, and that holistic approaches are required for drawing comprehensive evolutionary conclusions.

Integration of spectral reflectance across the plumage: implications for mating patterns

BACKGROUND

In complex sexual signaling systems such as plumage color, developmental or genetic links may occur among seemingly distinct traits. However, the interrelations of such traits and the functional significance of their integration rarely have been examined.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We investigated the parallel variation of two reflectance descriptors (brightness and UV chroma) across depigmented and melanized plumage areas of collared flycatchers (Ficedula albicollis), and the possible role of integrated color signals in mate acquisition. We found moderate integration in brightness and UV chroma across the plumage, with similar correlation structures in the two sexes despite the strong sexual dichromatism. Patterns of parallel color change across the plumage were largely unrelated to ornamental white patch sizes, but they all showed strong assortative mating between the sexes. Comparing different types of assortative mating patterns for individual spectral variables suggested a distinct role for plumage-level color axes in mate acquisition.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Our results indicate that the plumage-level, parallel variation of coloration might play a role in mate acquisition. This study underlines the importance of considering potential developmental and functional integration among apparently different ornaments in studies of sexual selection.

Structure of social networks in a passerine bird: consequences for sexual selection and the evolution of mating strategies

The social environment is a critical determinant of fitness and, in many taxa, is shaped by an individual's behavioral discrimination among social contexts, suggesting that animals can actively influence the selection they experience. In competition to attract females, males may modify sexual selection by choosing social environments in which they are more attractive relative to rivals. Across the population, such behaviors should influence sexual selection patterns by altering the relationship between male mating success and sexual ornament elaboration. Here we use network analysis to examine patterns of male social behavior in relation to plumage ornamentation and mating success in a free-living population of house finches. During the nonbreeding season, less elaborate males changed associations with distinct social groups more frequently, compared to more elaborate males that showed greater fidelity to a single social group. By the onset of pair formation, socially labile males effectively increased their attractiveness relative to other males in the same flocks. Consequently, males that frequently moved between social groups had greater pairing success than less social individuals with equivalent sexual ornamentation. We discuss these results in relation to conditional mating tactics and the role of social behavior in evolutionary change by sexual selection.

Quantitative genetics of pigmentation development in 2 populations of the common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis

The evolutionary importance of ontogenetic change has been noted since Darwin. However, most analyses of phenotypic evolution focus on single landmark ages. Here, we present an inheritance study that quantifies genetic variation in pigmentation across early-age (i.e., birth to 180 days) development in 2 populations of the common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis. The populations are phenotypically distinct and geographically isolated (Manitoba, CA and Northern California, USA). There were highly significant differences between populations for the developmental trajectory of mean pigmentation, with the Manitoba population exhibiting a mean pigmentation level that increased across ontogeny, whereas the California population exhibited mean pigmentation that was invariant across ontogeny. Subsequent quantitative genetic analyses revealed heritable variation at all ages in Manitoba but low levels of phenotypic and genetic variation in California at all ages. A quantitative genetic decomposition of the longitudinal genetic variance-covariance matrix for the age-specific pigmentation phenotypes in the Manitoba population revealed 2 primary orthogonal axes that explained most ( approximately 100%) of the pigmentation variation across ontogeny. The primary axis, explaining 93% of the genetic variation, is an axis of genetic variation whose principal value loadings change from positive to negative across development, suggesting that the most rapid evolutionary response to selection on pigmentation variation will occur in the direction characterized by a tradeoff in early-age versus late-age pigmentation phenotypes. Pigmentation is known to be ecologically important and subject to rapid evolution under selection. Our study shows that significant differences exist between these 2 populations for their capacity to respond to selection on pigmentation which is not only influenced by the population of origin but also by the developmental process. We suggest that developmental timing may be a potential explanatory mechanism for the difference between the populations.

Expression of breeding coloration in European Green Lizards (Lacerta viridis): variation with morphology and tick infestation

According to the hypothesis of parasite-mediated sexual selection, for a communication system to work reliably, parasites should reduce the showiness of sexual signals of their host. In this study, we examined whether the expression of breeding coloration in free-ranging adult European Green Lizards ( Lacerta viridis (Laurenti, 1768)) is linked with infestation by their common ectoparasite Ixodes ricinus (L., 1758) (Acari: Ixodidae). We found that tick infestation was higher in males than in females. Males showing relatively heavier body for their tail length (predominantly males with regenerated tails) and relatively thinner tail base experienced higher infestation rates. In turn, relatively heavier females for their snout–vent length were less tick infested. Although some components of throat and chest coloration varied significantly with relative tail length, tail-base thickness, body mass, and head size, a measure of male throat and female chest color saturation seemed independent of lizard morphology. After correcting for the effects of morphology on skin coloration and tick load, the saturation of blue throat color in male lizards decreased with increasing level of tick infestation. In contrast, yellow chest color saturation increased with residual tick numbers in females. Considering presumably different signaling functions of male and female lizard coloration, our work suggests that tick infestation might represent a handicap for Green Lizards.

Moult speed constrains the expression of a carotenoid-based sexual ornament

We investigated the effect of moult speed on the expression of a sexually selected, carotenoid-based feather ornament in the rock sparrow (Petronia petronia). We experimentally accelerated the moult speed of a group of birds by exposing them to a rapidly decreasing photoperiod and compared the area and the spectral characteristics of their ornaments with those of control birds. Birds with accelerated moulting rate showed a smaller yellow patch with lower yellow reflectance compared to their slow-moulting counterparts. Considering that the time available for moulting is usually constrained between the end of the breeding season and migration or wintering, carotenoid feather ornaments, whose expression is mediated by moult speed, may convey long term information about an individual's condition, potentially encompassing the previous breeding season. Furthermore, the observed trade-off between moult speed and ornament expression may represent a previously unrecognized selective advantage for early breeding birds.

Within-male melanin-based plumage and bill elaboration in male house sparrows

If there is a cost to producing a dark color patch, the size of a patch may not correspond with its pigment concentration. The plumage of male house sparrows represents a case of dark, melanin-based ornamentation, but also a case of neglecting the composite nature of dark signals in birds. Here, I investigated what kind of associations exist between the brightness, chroma, and hue of dark integumentary patches and the size of a secondary sexual trait, the bib, in male house sparrows. I found that males with a larger bib also had a darker bib and bill, and a more saturated bib, bill, epaulets, head crown, and breast than small-bibbed males. Male bib coloration in terms of brightness and chroma was more strongly related to bib size than the coloration of other integumentary patches. However, with respect to hue, only the hue of the bill and cheeks was related to bib size. My results indicate that size, brightness, and chroma of the bib, but also chroma of other deeply colored patches, convey redundant information about the signaler's quality in male house sparrows.

Adaptive genetic complementarity in mate choice coexists with selection for elaborate sexual traits

Choice of genetically unrelated mates is widely documented, yet it is not known how self-referential mate choice can co-occur with commonly observed directional selection on sexual displays. Across 10 breeding seasons in a wild bird population, we found strong fitness benefits of matings between genetically unrelated partners and show that self-referential choice of genetically unrelated mates alternates with sexual selection on elaborate plumage. Seasonal cycles of diminishing variation in ornamentation, caused by early pairing of the most elaborated males, and influx of increasingly genetically unrelated available mates caused by female-biased dispersal, lead to temporal fluctuations in the target of mate choice and enabled coexistence of directional selection for ornament elaboration with adaptive pairing of genetically unrelated partners.

Environmental-induced acquisition of nuptial plumage expression: a role of denaturation of feather carotenoproteins?

Several avian species show a bright carotenoid-based coloration during spring and following a period of duller coloration during the previous winter, despite carotenoids presumably being fully deposited in feathers during the autumn moult. Carotenoid-based breast feathers of male linnets (Carduelis cannabina) increased in hue (redness), saturation and brightness after exposing them to outdoor conditions from winter to spring. This represents the first experimental evidence showing that carotenoid-based plumage coloration may increase towards a colourful expression due to biotic or abiotic environmental factors acting directly on full-grown feathers when carotenoids may be fully functional. Sunlight ultraviolet (UV) irradiation was hypothesized to denature keratin and other proteins that might protect pigments from degradation by this and other environmental factors, suggesting that sunlight UV irradiation is a major factor in the colour increase from winter to spring. Feather proteins and other binding molecules, if existing in the follicles, may be linked to carotenoids since their deposition into feathers to protect colourful features of associated carotenoids during the non-breeding season when its main signalling function may be relaxed. Progress towards uncovering the significance of concealment and subsequent display of colour expression should consider the potential binding and protecting nature of feather proteins associated with carotenoids.

Rapid temporal change in the expression and age-related information content of a sexually selected trait

The expression of sexual signals is often phenotypically plastic and also evolves rapidly. Few studies have considered the possibility that proximate determination -- the pathway between genes and trait expression -- may also be subject to both phenotypic plasticity and evolutionary change. We examined long-term patterns in size, condition- and age-dependence, repeatability and heritability of forehead patch size, a sexually selected plumage trait in male collared flycatchers. We also estimated survival and sexual selection on the phenotypic value of the trait. Forehead patch size linearly declined during the 15 years, probably due to the significantly negative survival selection. In addition, the expression of genetic variation for the ornament apparently underwent an age-limited change, which implies a change in the information content of the signal to receivers. The persistent lack of condition-dependence makes phenotypic plasticity an unlikely explanation to our results. This raises the possibility of a microevolutionary change of both expression and proximate determination during the study period.