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Bshary R, Noë R. A marine cleaning mutualism provides new insights in biological market dynamics. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20210501. [PMID: 36934753 PMCID: PMC10024986 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Most mutually beneficial social interactions (cooperation within species, mutualism between species) involve some degree of partner choice. In an analogy to economic theory as applied to human trading practices, biological market theory (BMT) focuses on how partner choice affects payoff distributions among non-human traders. BMT has inspired a great diversity of research, including research on the mutualism between cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus and other marine fish, their 'clients'. In this mutualism, clients have ectoparasites removed and cleaners obtain food in return. We use the available data on L. dimidiatus cleaner-client interactions to identify avenues for future expansion of BMT. We focus on three main topics, namely how partner quality interacts with supply-to-demand ratios to affect service quality, the role of threats and forms of forceful intervention, and the potential role of cognition. We consider it essential to identify the specifics of each biological market as a basis for the development of more sophisticated BMT models. This article is part of the theme issue 'Half a century of evolutionary games: a synthesis of theory, application and future directions'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Redouan Bshary
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Emile-Argand 11, 2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Ronald Noë
- Department of Psychology, Tuk, The Netherlands and Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-1104, USA
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2
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Leimar O, McNamara JM. Game theory in biology: 50 years and onwards. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20210509. [PMID: 36934762 PMCID: PMC10024991 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 03/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Game theory in biology gained prominence 50 years ago, when Maynard Smith & Price formulated the concept of an evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS). Their aim was to explain why conflicts between animals of the same species usually are of a 'limited war' type, not causing serious injury. They emphasized that game theory is an alternative to previous ideas about group selection, which were used by ethologists to explain limited aggression. Subsequently, the ESS concept was applied to many phenomena with frequency dependence in the evolutionary success of strategies, including sex allocation, alternative mating types, contest behaviour and signalling, cooperation, and parental care. Both the analyses of signalling and cooperation were inspired by similar problems in economics and attracted much attention in biology. Here we give a perspective on which of the ambitions in the field have been achieved, with a focus on contest behaviour and cooperation. We evaluate whether the game-theoretical study of the evolution of cooperation has measured up to expectations in explaining the behaviour of non-human animals. We also point to potentially fruitful directions for the field, and emphasize the importance of incorporating realistic behavioural mechanisms into models. This article is part of the theme issue 'Half a century of evolutionary games: a synthesis of theory, application and future directions'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olof Leimar
- Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, Stockholm 106 91, Sweden
| | - John M. McNamara
- School of Mathematics, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UG, UK
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Triki Z, Aellen M, van Schaik CP, Bshary R. Relative Brain Size and Cognitive Equivalence in Fishes. BRAIN, BEHAVIOR AND EVOLUTION 2022; 96:124-136. [PMID: 34753141 DOI: 10.1159/000520741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Scientists have long struggled to establish how larger brains translate into higher cognitive performance across species. While absolute brain size often yields high predictive power of performance, its positive correlation with body size warrants some level of correction. It is expected that larger brains are needed to control larger bodies without any changes in cognitive performance. Potentially, the mean value of intraspecific brain-body slopes provides the best available estimate for an interspecific correction factor. For example, in primates, including humans, an increase in body size translates into an increase in brain size without changes in cognitive performance. Here, we provide the first evaluation of this hypothesis for another clade, teleost fishes. First, we obtained a mean intraspecific brain-body regression slope of 0.46 (albeit with a relatively large range of 0.26-0.79) from a dataset of 51 species, with at least 10 wild adult specimens per species. This mean intraspecific slope value (0.46) is similar to that of the encephalisation quotient reported for teleosts (0.5), which can be used to predict mean cognitive performance in fishes. Importantly, such a mean value (0.46) is much higher than in endothermic vertebrate species (≤0.3). Second, we used wild-caught adult cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus as a case study to test whether variation in individual cognitive performance can be explained by body size. We first obtained the brain-body regression slope for this species from two different datasets, which gave slope values of 0.58 (MRI scan data) and 0.47 (dissection data). Then, we used another dataset involving 69 adult cleaners different from those tested for their brain-body slope. We found that cognitive performance from four different tasks that estimated their learning, numerical, and inhibitory control abilities was not significantly associated with body size. These results suggest that the intraspecific brain-body slope captures cognitive equivalence for this species. That is, individuals that are on the brain-body regression line are cognitively equal. While rather preliminary, our results suggest that fish and mammalian brain organisations are fundamentally different, resulting in different intra- and interspecific slopes of cognitive equivalence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zegni Triki
- Behavioural Ecology Laboratory, Faculty of Science, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland.,Institute of Zoology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mélisande Aellen
- Behavioural Ecology Laboratory, Faculty of Science, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Carel P van Schaik
- Department of Anthropology and Anthropological Museum, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Redouan Bshary
- Behavioural Ecology Laboratory, Faculty of Science, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélisande Aellen
- Department of Behavioural Ecology University of Neuchâtel Neuchâtel Switzerland
| | - Judith M. Burkart
- Anthropological Institute and Museum University of Zürich Zürich Switzerland
| | - Redouan Bshary
- Department of Behavioural Ecology University of Neuchâtel Neuchâtel Switzerland
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Staven FR, Gesto M, Iversen MH, Andersen P, Patel DM, Nordeide JT, Kristensen T. Cohabitation With Atlantic Salmon ( Salmo salar) Affects Brain Neuromodulators But Not Welfare Indicators in Lumpfish ( Cyclopterus lumpus). Front Physiol 2022; 13:781519. [PMID: 35309044 PMCID: PMC8924591 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.781519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Lumpfish are utilized to combat ectoparasitic epidemics in salmon farming. Research gaps on both cleaning behavior and client preferences in a natural environment, emphasizes the need to investigate the physiological impacts on lumpfish during cohabitation with piscivorous Atlantic salmon. Lumpfish (39.9 g, S.D ± 8.98) were arranged in duplicate tanks (n = 40 per treatment) and exposed to Live Atlantic salmon (245.7 g, S.D ± 25.05), salmon Olfaction or lifelike salmon Models for 6 weeks. Growth and health scores were measured every second week. In addition, the final sampling included measurements of neuromodulators, body color, and plasma cortisol. A stimulation and suppression test of the hypothalamic-pituitary-interrenal (HPI) axis was used for chronic stress assessment. Results showed that growth, health scores, and body color remained unaffected by treatments. Significant reductions in levels of brain dopamine and norepinephrine were observed in Live compared to Control. Plasma cortisol was low in all treatments, while the stimulation and suppression test of the HPI axis revealed no indications of chronic stress. This study presents novel findings on the impact on neuromodulators from Atlantic salmon interaction in the lumpfish brain. We argue that the downregulation of dopamine and norepinephrine indicate plastic adjustments to cohabitation with no negative effect on the species. This is in accordance with no observed deviations in welfare measurements, including growth, health scores, body color, and stress. We conclude that exposure to salmon or salmon cues did not impact the welfare of the species in our laboratory setup, and that neuromodulators are affected by heterospecific interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrik R. Staven
- Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
- Department of Research and Development, Aqua Kompetanse AS, Flatanger, Norway
| | - Manuel Gesto
- Section for Aquaculture, Technical University of Denmark, Hirtshals, Denmark
| | - Martin H. Iversen
- Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
| | - Per Andersen
- Department of Research and Development, Aqua Kompetanse AS, Flatanger, Norway
| | - Deepti M. Patel
- Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
| | - Jarle T. Nordeide
- Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
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Kohda M, Sogawa S, Jordan AL, Kubo N, Awata S, Satoh S, Kobayashi T, Fujita A, Bshary R. Further evidence for the capacity of mirror self-recognition in cleaner fish and the significance of ecologically relevant marks. PLoS Biol 2022; 20:e3001529. [PMID: 35176032 PMCID: PMC8853551 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
An animal that tries to remove a mark from its body that is only visible when looking into a mirror displays the capacity for mirror self-recognition (MSR), which has been interpreted as evidence for self-awareness. Conservative interpretations of existing data conclude that convincing evidence for MSR is currently restricted to great apes. Here, we address proposed shortcomings of a previous study on MSR in the cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiatus, by varying preexposure to mirrors and by marking individuals with different colors. We found that (1) 14/14 new individuals scraped their throat when a brown mark had been provisioned, but only in the presence of a mirror; (2) blue and green color marks did not elicit scraping; (3) intentionally injecting the mark deeper beneath the skin reliably elicited spontaneous scraping in the absence of a mirror; (4) mirror-naive individuals injected with a brown mark scraped their throat with lower probability and/or lower frequency compared to mirror-experienced individuals; (5) in contrast to the mirror images, seeing another fish with the same marking did not induce throat scraping; and (6) moving the mirror to another location did not elicit renewed aggression in mirror-experienced individuals. Taken together, these results increase our confidence that cleaner fish indeed pass the mark test, although only if it is presented in ecologically relevant contexts. Therefore, we reiterate the conclusion of the previous study that either self-awareness in animals or the validity of the mirror test needs to be revised. When animal tries to remove a mark from its body that is only visible when looking into a mirror (the "mark test"), it displays the capacity for mirror self-recognition, often interpreted as evidence for self-awareness. This follow-up to a previous PLOS Biology study increases confidence that cleaner fish indeed pass the mark test, but only if it is presented in ecologically relevant contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masanori Kohda
- Laboratory of Animal Sociology, Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Shumpei Sogawa
- Laboratory of Animal Sociology, Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Alex L. Jordan
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behaviour, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Naoki Kubo
- Laboratory of Animal Sociology, Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Satoshi Awata
- Laboratory of Animal Sociology, Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shun Satoh
- Laboratory of Animal Sociology, Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Taiga Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Animal Sociology, Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Akane Fujita
- Laboratory of Animal Sociology, Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Redouan Bshary
- Institute of Zoology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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Prat Y, Bshary R, Lotem A. Modelling how cleaner fish approach an ephemeral reward task demonstrates a role for ecologically tuned chunking in the evolution of advanced cognition. PLoS Biol 2022; 20:e3001519. [PMID: 34986149 PMCID: PMC8765642 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
What makes cognition “advanced” is an open and not precisely defined question. One perspective involves increasing the complexity of associative learning, from conditioning to learning sequences of events (“chaining”) to representing various cue combinations as “chunks.” Here we develop a weighted graph model to study the mechanism enabling chunking ability and the conditions for its evolution and success, based on the ecology of the cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus. In some environments, cleaners must learn to serve visitor clients before resident clients, because a visitor leaves if not attended while a resident waits for service. This challenge has been captured in various versions of the ephemeral reward task, which has been proven difficult for a range of cognitively capable species. We show that chaining is the minimal requirement for solving this task in its common simplified laboratory format that involves repeated simultaneous exposure to an ephemeral and permanent food source. Adding ephemeral–ephemeral and permanent–permanent combinations, as cleaners face in the wild, requires individuals to have chunking abilities to solve the task. Importantly, chunking parameters need to be calibrated to ecological conditions in order to produce adaptive decisions. Thus, it is the fine-tuning of this ability, which may be the major target of selection during the evolution of advanced associative learning. What makes cognition ‘advanced’ is an open and not precisely defined question. In this study, a cognitive model of cleaner fish learning the ephemeral-reward task demonstrates how a critical step in cognitive evolution may be understood as the evolution of chunking and its tuning to fit ecological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yosef Prat
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
- * E-mail: (YP); (AL)
| | - Redouan Bshary
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Arnon Lotem
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- * E-mail: (YP); (AL)
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9
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Triki Z, Richter XYL, Demairé C, Kurokawa S, Bshary R. Marine cleaning mutualism defies standard logic of supply and demand. Am Nat 2021; 199:455-467. [DOI: 10.1086/718315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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12
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Triki Z, Emery Y, Teles MC, Oliveira RF, Bshary R. Brain morphology predicts social intelligence in wild cleaner fish. Nat Commun 2020; 11:6423. [PMID: 33349638 PMCID: PMC7752907 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20130-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
It is generally agreed that variation in social and/or environmental complexity yields variation in selective pressures on brain anatomy, where more complex brains should yield increased intelligence. While these insights are based on many evolutionary studies, it remains unclear how ecology impacts brain plasticity and subsequently cognitive performance within a species. Here, we show that in wild cleaner fish (Labroides dimidiatus), forebrain size of high-performing individuals tested in an ephemeral reward task covaried positively with cleaner density, while cerebellum size covaried negatively with cleaner density. This unexpected relationship may be explained if we consider that performance in this task reflects the decision rules that individuals use in nature rather than learning abilities: cleaners with relatively larger forebrains used decision-rules that appeared to be locally optimal. Thus, social competence seems to be a suitable proxy of intelligence to understand individual differences under natural conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zegni Triki
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Emile-Argand 11, 2000, Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
- Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, Svante Arrheniusväg 18 B, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Yasmin Emery
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Emile-Argand 11, 2000, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Magda C Teles
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande, 6, 2780-156, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Rui F Oliveira
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande, 6, 2780-156, Oeiras, Portugal
- ISPA - Instituto Universitário, Rua Jardim do Tabaco 34, 1149-041, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Redouan Bshary
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Emile-Argand 11, 2000, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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Prétôt L, Mickelberg J, Carrigan J, Stoinski T, Bshary R, Brosnan SF. Comparative performance of orangutans (Pongo spp.), gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), and drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus), in an ephemeral foraging task. Am J Primatol 2020; 83:e23212. [PMID: 33135209 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
A goal of the comparative approach is to test a variety of species on the same task. Here, we examined whether the factors that helped capuchin monkeys improve their performance in a dichotomous choice task would generalize to three other primate species: orangutans, gorillas, and drill monkeys. In this task, subjects have access to two options, each resulting in an identical food, but one (the ephemeral option) is only available if it is chosen first, whereas the other one (the permanent option) is always available. Therefore, the food-maximizing solution is to choose the ephemeral option first, followed by the permanent option for an additional reward. On the original version (plate task), the options were discriminated by the color and pattern of the plates holding the food, while on two subsequent versions we used altered cues that we predicted would improve performance: (1) the color of the foods themselves (color task), which we hypothesized was relevant to primates, who choose foods rather than substrates on which foods are found when foraging, and (2) patterned cups covering the foods (cup task), which we hypothesized would help primates avoid the prepotent response associated with visible food. Like capuchins, all three species initially failed to solve the plate task. However, while orangutans improved their performance from the plate to the color task, they did not for the cup task, and only a few gorillas and no drills succeeded in either task. Unfortunately, our ability to interpret these data was obscured by differences in the subjects' level of experience with cognitive testing and practical constraints that precluded the use of completely identical procedures across species. Nonetheless, we consider what these results can tell us, and discuss the value of conducting studies across multiple sites despite unavoidable differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Prétôt
- Department of Psychology and Language Research Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | | | | - Tara Stoinski
- Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Redouan Bshary
- Department of Behavioral Ecology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Sarah F Brosnan
- Department of Psychology and Language Research Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Philosophy, Neuroscience Institute, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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