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Achdiat M, Tan KA, Fujaya Y, Wang Y, Martin MB, Shu-Chien AC, Fazhan H, Waiho K. A comparative study on the antennae morphology and ultrastructure of three mud crab species of the genus Scylla from Setiu Wetlands, Terengganu, Malaysia. Microsc Res Tech 2024; 87:1443-1452. [PMID: 38404206 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.24524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Crustaceans possess a range of sensory organs crucial in sensory perception, communication, and various ecological functions. Understanding morphological and functional differences in antennae among species could validate taxonomic differentiation and ecological adaptations. The antennae morphology and ultrastructure of mud crab species within the Scylla genus are poorly understood, and their role in ecological adaptation and species differentiation remains unexplored. This study aimed to describe and compare the morphology and ultrastructure of antennae in Scylla olivacea, Scylla tranquebarica, and Scylla paramamosain. Antennae were carefully excised from each crab and subjected to morphological, morphometric, and ultrastructural analysis. The study revealed that the antennae of Scylla species exhibit similar overall morphology, with a series of segments that tapered toward the upper end. All species possess non-branched single setae on the upper end of each segment. The number of antennae segments varied between species, with S. paramamosain having significantly more segments than S. olivacea. Additionally, the length and width of antenna segments differed among the species, with S. tranquebarica having a rougher antenna surface compared to S. olivacea and S. paramamosain. Our findings suggest that Scylla's antennae are distinct between species, especially in the number of segments and setae size. Such difference might be related to ecological adaptation. The role of antennae in sensory perception and social behavioral cues in mud crabs warrants further investigation. This study serves as a foundational reference for future research on the taxonomy, ecological adaptation, and sensory behaviors in the Scylla genus. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Variations and similarities in morphology and ultrastructure of three Scylla species can be found in the antennae. Scylla paramamosain had significantly higher number of segments than Scylla olivacea in morphology feature. The antennae surface of Scylla tranquebarica was rougher than that of S. olivacea and S. paramamosain. Antennae of three Scylla species possess non-branched single setae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Achdiat
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Beibu Gulf Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, College of Marine Sciences, Beibu Gulf University, Guangxi, China
- Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE), Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Kian Ann Tan
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Beibu Gulf Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, College of Marine Sciences, Beibu Gulf University, Guangxi, China
| | - Yushinta Fujaya
- Faculty of Marine Science and Fisheries, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia
| | - Youji Wang
- International Research Center for Marine Biosciences, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Melissa Beata Martin
- Faculty of Science and Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Alexander Chong Shu-Chien
- Center for Chemical Biology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bayan Lepas, Penang, Malaysia
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bayan Lepas, Penang, Malaysia
- Northland Aquaculture Centre, National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Ruakaka, New Zealand
| | - Hanafiah Fazhan
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Beibu Gulf Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, College of Marine Sciences, Beibu Gulf University, Guangxi, China
- Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE), Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
- Center for Chemical Biology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bayan Lepas, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Khor Waiho
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Beibu Gulf Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, College of Marine Sciences, Beibu Gulf University, Guangxi, China
- Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE), Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
- Center for Chemical Biology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bayan Lepas, Penang, Malaysia
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Gutiérrez-Vera JA, Ponce-Rivas E, Braga A, Paniagua-Chávez CG, Alfaro-Montoya J, Rosales-Leija M. Evidence of the Existence of Site-Specific Female Contact Pheromones Involved in the Sexual Interaction Behavior of the Pacific Whiteleg Shrimp Penaeus vannamei. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1523. [PMID: 38891570 PMCID: PMC11171375 DOI: 10.3390/ani14111523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2024] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Although the presence of female contact sex pheromones in P. vannamei has been hypothesized, to date its existence has not been proven. To gather more evidence of their existence, cuticular liposoluble extracts were obtained from the following samples of adult females to be used as the experimental treatments: (1) ventral exoskeleton of immature female (VI), (2) dorsolateral exoskeleton of immature female (DI), (3) ventral exoskeleton of mature female (VM), and (4) dorsolateral exoskeleton of mature female (DM). Polyvinyl chloride tubes (artificial females; AF) were coated with each extract and the behavior displayed by sexually mature males in contact with the AF was recorded and classified as follows: 0 = no response; 1 = contact; 2 = pushing; and 3 = prolonged contact (≥10 s). To test the hypothesis that the extracts collected from the ventral portion of the abdomen exoskeleton have a higher effect on the behavior of males than the extracts collected from the dorsolateral portion of the abdomen exoskeleton, the experiment was divided into two bioassays: Bioassay I (VI vs. DI) and Bioassay II (VM vs. DM). In each bioassay, all experimental treatments were significantly different (p > 0.05) from the CTL group (AF coated with hexane). Notably, the pushing behavior was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the VI treatment compared to the CTL and DI treatment. These results provide evidence of the existence of contact female sex pheromones with sexual recognition function located primarily in the ventral portion of the abdomen exoskeleton of P. vannamei.
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Affiliation(s)
- José A. Gutiérrez-Vera
- Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Baja California (CICESE), Ensenada 22860, Mexico; (J.A.G.-V.); (E.P.-R.); (C.G.P.-C.)
| | - Elizabeth Ponce-Rivas
- Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Baja California (CICESE), Ensenada 22860, Mexico; (J.A.G.-V.); (E.P.-R.); (C.G.P.-C.)
| | - André Braga
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada 22873, Mexico;
| | - Carmen G. Paniagua-Chávez
- Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Baja California (CICESE), Ensenada 22860, Mexico; (J.A.G.-V.); (E.P.-R.); (C.G.P.-C.)
| | - Jorge Alfaro-Montoya
- Estación de Biología Marina, Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional, Puntarenas 86-3000, Costa Rica;
| | - Misael Rosales-Leija
- Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Baja California (CICESE), Ensenada 22860, Mexico; (J.A.G.-V.); (E.P.-R.); (C.G.P.-C.)
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Derby CD, Caprio J. What are olfaction and gustation, and do all animals have them? Chem Senses 2024; 49:bjae009. [PMID: 38422390 DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjae009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Different animals have distinctive anatomical and physiological properties to their chemical senses that enhance detection and discrimination of relevant chemical cues. Humans and other vertebrates are recognized as having 2 main chemical senses, olfaction and gustation, distinguished from each other by their evolutionarily conserved neuroanatomical organization. This distinction between olfaction and gustation in vertebrates is not based on the medium in which they live because the most ancestral and numerous vertebrates, the fishes, live in an aquatic habitat and thus both olfaction and gustation occur in water and both can be of high sensitivity. The terms olfaction and gustation have also often been applied to the invertebrates, though not based on homology. Consequently, any similarities between olfaction and gustation in the vertebrates and invertebrates have resulted from convergent adaptations or shared constraints during evolution. The untidiness of assigning olfaction and gustation to invertebrates has led some to recommend abandoning the use of these terms and instead unifying them and others into a single category-chemical sense. In our essay, we compare the nature of the chemical senses of diverse animal types and consider their designation as olfaction, oral gustation, extra-oral gustation, or simply chemoreception. Properties that we have found useful in categorizing chemical senses of vertebrates and invertebrates include the nature of peripheral sensory cells, organization of the neuropil in the processing centers, molecular receptor specificity, and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles D Derby
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - John Caprio
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
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Zhou Z, Wu H, Wu Z, Mo L, Li D, Zeng W, Luo H, Huang J. Identification of sex pheromone of red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii and exploration of the chemosensory mechanism of their antennae. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 195:105580. [PMID: 37666605 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2023.105580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
Red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii, is a globally invasive species, which has caused great damage to biodiversity, agriculture, and fishing. Therefore, the development of effective management methods, such as pheromone control, is necessary for biological control and biodiversity protection. However, the components of P. clarkii sex pheromones have not yet been explored, and the chemosensory mechanism of the P. clarkii antennae after stimulation by sex pheromone also remains unknown. In this study, we isolated and identified the candidate bioactive component of the female P. clarkii sex pheromone using ultrafiltration centrifugation, semi-preparative liquid phase separation and omics technologies and conducted bioassays to determine its attraction ability. Meanwhile, RNA-Seq technology was used to analyze the potential chemosensory mechanism of antennae. Our results indicated that the male P. clarkii were uniaxially attracted to the female crude conditioned water (FCW), medium fraction (MF, isolated by ultrafiltration centrifugation), and preparative fragment 6 of females (PFF6, isolated by semi-preparative liquid phase separation). Metabolomic analysis revealed the presence of 18 differential metabolites between the PFF6 and PFM6 samples, among which 15 were significantly upregulated in the PFF6 sample. Bioassay test also showed that mestranol, especially at concentrations of 10-5-10-2 mol∙l-1, could significantly attract P. clarkii males; therefore, mestranol was identified as the candidate sex pheromone component of P. clarkii females. Furthermore, RNA-Seq results showed that most differentially expressed genes (DEGs) enriched in lipid metabolism and signal transduction pathways were up-regulated in P. clarkii males. In addition, high expressions of Ca2+-binding protein and ion transporting ATPases may enhance the sensitivity of the antennae of P. clarkii males towards sex pheromones. Our study provides data on P. clarkii sex pheromone composition and reveals the molecular mechanism of sex pheromone response in P. clarkii. Moreover, our study provides a referable method for the isolation of candidate bioactive molecules from the P. clarkii sex pheromone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihao Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China; College of Life Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China
| | - Hongying Wu
- College of Life Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China
| | - Zhengjun Wu
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China; College of Life Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China
| | - Lili Mo
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China; College of Life Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China
| | - Dinghong Li
- College of Life Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China
| | - Wenlong Zeng
- College of Life Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China
| | - Haiyu Luo
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China; College of Life Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China
| | - Jinlong Huang
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China; College of Life Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541006, China.
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Gellert M, Błażewicz M, Mamos T, Bird GJ. Diversity under a magnifier lens: the case of Typhlotanaidae (Crustacea: Tanaidacea) in the N Atlantic. Sci Rep 2023; 13:10905. [PMID: 37407596 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-33616-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Research focusing on 'stout-bodied' typhlotanaids collected from several sites around Iceland and adjacent N Atlantic region has resulted in the description of 15 species new to science, as well as the creation of eight new genera. Typhlotanais eximius Hansen, 1913 is redescribed and transferred to a new genus, while Typhlotanais crassus and Peraeospinosus adipatus are transferred to the genus Larsenotanais. The morphological and the molecular data were combined to consolidate and confirm the validity of the results obtained from both approaches. The polyphyletic nature of the Typhlotanaidae and its serious of its taxonomic diversity are emphasized, although molecular analysis reveals that the 'stout-bodied' Typhlotanaidae form monophyletic clade. Depth and temperature are identified as the main environmental parameters determining the distribution of this group of Typhlotanaidae. Several species are clearly associated with the shelf and upper bathyal of Iceland. The Greenland-Iceland-Faroe Ridge is shown to be a distinct zoogeographical barrier for typhlotanaids inhabiting the deeper slope and abyssal regions around Iceland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Gellert
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology and Hydrobiology, University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland.
| | - Magdalena Błażewicz
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology and Hydrobiology, University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Tomasz Mamos
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology and Hydrobiology, University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
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Steele TJ, Lanz AJ, Nagel KI. Olfactory navigation in arthropods. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2023; 209:467-488. [PMID: 36658447 PMCID: PMC10354148 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-022-01611-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2022] [Revised: 12/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Using odors to find food and mates is one of the most ancient and highly conserved behaviors. Arthropods from flies to moths to crabs use broadly similar strategies to navigate toward odor sources-such as integrating flow information with odor information, comparing odor concentration across sensors, and integrating odor information over time. Because arthropods share many homologous brain structures-antennal lobes for processing olfactory information, mechanosensors for processing flow, mushroom bodies (or hemi-ellipsoid bodies) for associative learning, and central complexes for navigation, it is likely that these closely related behaviors are mediated by conserved neural circuits. However, differences in the types of odors they seek, the physics of odor dispersal, and the physics of locomotion in water, air, and on substrates mean that these circuits must have adapted to generate a wide diversity of odor-seeking behaviors. In this review, we discuss common strategies and specializations observed in olfactory navigation behavior across arthropods, and review our current knowledge about the neural circuits subserving this behavior. We propose that a comparative study of arthropod nervous systems may provide insight into how a set of basic circuit structures has diversified to generate behavior adapted to different environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa J Steele
- Neuroscience Institute, NYU School of Medicine, 435 E 30th St., New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Aaron J Lanz
- Neuroscience Institute, NYU School of Medicine, 435 E 30th St., New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Katherine I Nagel
- Neuroscience Institute, NYU School of Medicine, 435 E 30th St., New York, NY, 10016, USA.
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Durant A, Khodikian E, Porteus CS. Ocean acidification alters foraging behaviour in Dungeness crab through impairment of the olfactory pathway. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2023; 29:4126-4139. [PMID: 37158617 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.16738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 03/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Crustacean olfaction is fundamental to most aspects of living and communicating in aquatic environments and more broadly, for individual- and population-level success. Accelerated ocean acidification from elevated CO2 threatens the ability of crabs to detect and respond to important olfactory-related cues. Here, we demonstrate that the ecologically and economically important Dungeness crab (Metacarcinus magister) exhibits reduced olfactory-related antennular flicking responses to a food cue when exposed to near-future CO2 levels, adding to the growing body of evidence of impaired crab behaviour. Underlying this altered behaviour, we find that crabs have lower olfactory nerve sensitivities (twofold reduction in antennular nerve activity) in response to a food cue when exposed to elevated CO2 . This suggests that near-future CO2 levels will impact the threshold of detection of food by crabs. We also show that lower olfactory nerve sensitivity in elevated CO2 is accompanied by a decrease in the olfactory sensory neuron (OSN) expression of a principal chemosensory receptor protein, ionotropic receptor 25a (IR25a) which is fundamental for odorant coding and olfactory signalling cascades. The OSNs also exhibit morphological changes in the form of decreased surface areas of their somata. This study provides the first evidence of the effects of high CO2 levels at multiple levels of biological organization in marine crabs, linking physiological and cellular changes with whole animal behavioural responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Durant
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Canada
| | - Elissa Khodikian
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Canada
| | - Cosima S Porteus
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Canada
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Cabej NR. On the origin and nature of nongenetic information in eumetazoans. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2023. [PMID: 37154677 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.15001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Nongenetic information implies all the forms of biological information not related to genes and DNA in general. Despite the deep scientific relevance of the concept, we currently lack reliable knowledge about its carriers and origins; hence, we still do not understand its true nature. Given that genes are the targets of nongenetic information, it appears that a parsimonious approach to find the ultimate source of that information is to trace back the sequential steps of the causal chain upstream of the target genes up to the ultimate link as the source of the nongenetic information. From this perspective, I examine seven nongenetically determined phenomena: placement of locus-specific epigenetic marks on DNA and histones, changes in snRNA expression patterns, neural induction of gene expression, site-specific alternative gene splicing, predator-induced morphological changes, and cultural inheritance. Based on the available evidence, I propose a general model of the common neural origin of all these forms of nongenetic information in eumetazoans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelson R Cabej
- Department of Biology, University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania
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Drozd D, Wolf H, Stemme T. Mechanosensory pathways of scorpion pecten hair sensillae-Adjustment of body height and pecten position. J Comp Neurol 2022; 530:2918-2937. [PMID: 35780514 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Scorpions' sensory abilities are intriguing, especially the rather enigmatic ventral comb-like chemo- and mechanosensory organs, the so-called pectines. Attached ventrally to the second mesosomal segment just posterior to the coxae of the fourth walking leg pair, the pectines consist of the lamellae, the fulcra, and a variable number of pecten teeth. The latter contain the bimodal peg sensillae, used for probing the substrate with regard to chemo- and mechanosensory cues simultaneously. In addition, the lamellae, the fulcra and the pecten teeth are equipped with pecten hair sensillae (PHS) to gather mechanosensory information. Previously, we have analyzed the neuronal pathway associated with the peg sensillae unraveling their somatotopic projection pattern in dedicated pecten neuropils. Little is known, however, regarding the projections of PHS within the scorpion nervous system. Behavioral and electrophysiological assays showed involvement of PHS in reflexive responses but how the information is integrated remains unresolved. Here, we unravel the innervation pattern of the mechanosensory pecten hair afferents in Mesobuthus eupeus and Euscorpius italicus. By using immunofluorescent labeling and injection of Neurobiotin tracer, we identify extensive arborizations of afferents, including (i) ventral neuropils, (ii) somatotopically organized multisegmental sensory tracts, (iii) contralateral branches via commissures, and (iv) direct ipsilateral innervation of walking leg neuromeres 3 and 4. Our results suggest that PHS function as sensors to elicit reflexive adjustment of body height and obstacle avoidance, mediating accurate pecten teeth alignment to guarantee functionality of pectines, which are involved in fundamental capacities like mating or navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise Drozd
- Institute of Neurobiology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Harald Wolf
- Institute of Neurobiology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Torben Stemme
- Institute of Neurobiology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
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