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Amollo TA. Metallic nanoparticles and hybrids of metallic nanoparticles/graphene nanomaterials for enhanced photon harvesting and charge transport in polymer and dye sensitized solar cells. Heliyon 2024; 10:e26401. [PMID: 38449657 PMCID: PMC10915355 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Solar energy is a sustainable option in the provision of affordable and clean energy. Conversion of solar energy to electricity requires the development of materials and technologies that are not only efficient but also cost-effective. Polymer solar cells (PSCs) and dye sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) are some of the cost-effective technologies for solar energy conversion. However, PSCs suffer from poor optical absorption and charge carrier mobility, while the major drawback to high efficiencies in DSSCs is charge carrier recombination. This article examines the potency of plasmonic metallic nanoparticles (MNPs) and hybrids of MNPs/graphene nanomaterials (GNMs) in mitigating these challenges. MNPs and MNPs/GNMs incorporated in these devices enhance light harvesting to extended wavelengths and improve charge transport. MNPs in the photoanode of DSSCs serve as cosensitizers to offer complementary optical absorption, while MNPs/GNMs as counter electrode yield high catalytic activity comparable to Pt. Simultaneous application of MNPs and/or MNPs/GNMs in PSCs' interfacial and active layers yield enhanced broadband optical absorption and effective charge transport. The mechanisms by which these nanomaterials enhance light harvesting in these devices are discussed in detail. The material characteristics that influence the performance of MNPs and MNPs/GNMs modified devices, such as MNPs size, shape, and morphology, are highlighted. Hence, this article presents perspectives and strategies on successful utilization of plasmonic MNPs and hybrids of MNPs/GNMs to mitigate the challenges of poor optical absorption and charge transport of PSCs and DSSCs for high efficiencies.
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Dai X, Wu L, Yu L, Yu Z, Ma F, Zhang Y, Yang Y, Sun J, Lu M. Sub-bandgap near-infrared photovoltaic response in Au/Al 2O 3/n-Si metal-insulator-semiconductor structure by plasmon-enhanced internal photoemission. NANOSCALE RESEARCH LETTERS 2023; 18:33. [PMID: 36881340 DOI: 10.1186/s11671-023-03818-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Silicon sub-bandgap near-infrared (NIR) (λ > 1100 nm) photovoltaic (PV) response by plasmon-enhanced internal photoemission was investigated. The Si sub-bandgap NIR PV response, which remains unexploited in Schottky junction-like solar cell device, was examined using nanometer sized Au/Al2O3/n-Si junction arrays. This kind of metal-insulator-semiconductor structure was similar in functionality to Schottky junction in NIR absorption, photo-induced charge separation and collection. It showed that NIR absorption increased steadily with increasing volume of Au nanoparticles (NPs) till a saturation was reached. Simulation results indicated the formation of localized surface plasmon on the surfaces of Au NPs, which was correlated well with the observed NIR absorption. On the other hand, the NIR PV response was found sensitive to the amount and size of Au NPs and thickness of Al2O3. Chemical and field-effect passivation of n-Si by using Al2O3 and SiO2 were used to optimize the NIR PV response. In the current configuration, the best PV conversion efficiency was 0.034% at λ = 1319 nm under illumination power of 0.1 W/cm2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiyuan Dai
- Department of Optical Science and Engineering, and Shanghai Ultra-Precision Optical Manufacturing Engineering Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Li Wu
- Department of Optical Science and Engineering, and Shanghai Ultra-Precision Optical Manufacturing Engineering Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Liang Yu
- Department of Optical Science and Engineering, and Shanghai Ultra-Precision Optical Manufacturing Engineering Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Zhiyuan Yu
- Department of Optical Science and Engineering, and Shanghai Ultra-Precision Optical Manufacturing Engineering Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Fengyang Ma
- Department of Optical Science and Engineering, and Shanghai Ultra-Precision Optical Manufacturing Engineering Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Yuchen Zhang
- Department of Optical Science and Engineering, and Shanghai Ultra-Precision Optical Manufacturing Engineering Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Yanru Yang
- Department of Optical Science and Engineering, and Shanghai Ultra-Precision Optical Manufacturing Engineering Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Jian Sun
- Department of Optical Science and Engineering, and Shanghai Ultra-Precision Optical Manufacturing Engineering Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China.
- Yiwu Research Institute of Fudan University, Yiwu, 322000, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Ming Lu
- Department of Optical Science and Engineering, and Shanghai Ultra-Precision Optical Manufacturing Engineering Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China.
- Yiwu Research Institute of Fudan University, Yiwu, 322000, Zhejiang, China.
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Kang M, Park Y, Lee H, Lee C, Park JY. Manipulation of hot electron flow on plasmonic nanodiodes fabricated by nanosphere lithography. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 32:225203. [PMID: 33607643 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/abe827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Energy conversion to generate hot electrons through the excitation of localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) in metallic nanostructures is an emerging strategy in photovoltaics and photocatalytic devices. Important factors for surface plasmon and hot electron generation are the size, shape, and materials of plasmonic metal nanostructures, which affect LSPR excitation, absorbance, and hot electron collection. Here, we fabricated the ordered structure of metal-semiconductor plasmonic nanodiodes using nanosphere lithography and reactive ion etching. Two types of hole-shaped plasmonic nanostructures with the hole diameter of 280 and 115 nm were fabricated on Au/TiO2Schottky diodes. We show that hot electron flow can be manipulated by changing the size of plasmonic nanostructures on the Schottky diode. We show that the short-circuit photocurrent changes and the incident photon-to-electron conversion efficiency results exhibit the peak shift depending on the structures. These phenomena are explicitly observed with finite difference time domain simulations. The capability of tuning the morphology of plasmonic nanostructure on the Schottky diode can give rise to new possibilities in controlling hot electron generation and developing novel hot-electron-based energy conversion devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mincheol Kang
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Yujin Park
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunhwa Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Changhwan Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Young Park
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea
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Jeon B, Lee C, Park JY. Electronic Control of Hot Electron Transport Using Modified Schottky Barriers in Metal-Semiconductor Nanodiodes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:9252-9259. [PMID: 33587596 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c22108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Hot electron flux, generated by both incident light energy and the heat of the catalytic reaction, is a major element for energy conversion at the surface. Controlling hot electron flux in a reversible manner is extremely important for achieving high energy conversion efficiency. Here we demonstrate that hot electron flux can be controlled by tuning the Schottky barrier height. This phenomenon was monitored by using a Schottky nanodiode composed of a metal-semiconductor. The formation of a Schottky barrier at a nanometer scale inevitably accompanies an intrinsic image potential between the metal-semiconductor junction, which lowers the effective Schottky barrier height. When a reverse bias is applied to the nanodiode, an additional image potential participates in a secondary barrier lowering, leading to the increased hot electron flow. Besides, a decrease of tunneling width results in facile electron transport through the barrier. The increased hot electron flux by the chemical reaction (chemicurrent) and by the photon absorption (photocurrent) indicates hot electrons are captured more effectively by modifying the Schottky barrier. This study can shed light on a quantitative understanding and application of charge behavior at metal-semiconductor interfaces, in solar energy conversion, or in a catalytic reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beomjoon Jeon
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Changhwan Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Young Park
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
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Kontoleta E, Askes SHC, Garnett EC. Self-Optimized Catalysts: Hot-Electron Driven Photosynthesis of Catalytic Photocathodes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:35713-35719. [PMID: 31475816 PMCID: PMC6778899 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b10913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Photogenerated hot electrons from plasmonic nanostructures are very promising for photocatalysis, mostly due to their potential for enhanced chemical selectivity. Here, we present a self-optimized fabrication method of plasmonic photocathodes using hot-electron chemistry, for enhanced photocatalytic efficiencies. Plasmonic Au/TiO2 nanoislands are excited at their surface plasmon resonance to generate hot electrons in an aqueous bath containing a platinum (cocatalyst) precursor. Hot electrons drive the deposition of Pt cocatalyst nanoparticles, without any nanoparticle functionalization and negligible applied bias, close to the hotspots of the plasmonic nanoislands. The presence of TiO2 is crucial for achieving higher chemical reaction rates. The Au/TiO2/Pt photocathodes synthesized using hot-electron chemistry show a photocatalytic activity of up to 2 times higher than that of a control made with random electrodeposited Pt nanoparticles. This light-driven positioning of the cocatalyst close to the same positions where hot electrons are most efficiently generated and transferred represents a novel and simple method for synthesizing complex, self-optimized photocatalytic nanostructures with improved efficiency and selectivity.
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Park Y, Choi J, Lee C, Cho AN, Cho DW, Park NG, Ihee H, Park JY. Elongated Lifetime and Enhanced Flux of Hot Electrons on a Perovskite Plasmonic Nanodiode. NANO LETTERS 2019; 19:5489-5495. [PMID: 31348860 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b02009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A fundamental understanding of hot electron transport is critical for developing efficient hot-carrier-based solar cells. There have been significant efforts to enhance hot electron flux, and it has been found that a key factor affecting the hot electron flux is the lifetime of the hot electrons. Here, we report a combined study of hot electron flux and the lifetime of hot carriers using a perovskite-modified plasmonic nanodiode. We found that perovskite deposition on a plasmonic nanodiode can considerably improve hot electron generation induced by photon absorption. The perovskite plasmonic nanodiode consists of MAPbI3 layers covering a plasmonic-Au/TiO2 Schottky junction that is composed of randomly connected Au nanoislands deposited on a TiO2 layer. The measured incident photon-to-electron conversion efficiency and the short-circuit photocurrent show a significantly improved solar-to-electrical conversion performance of this nanodiode. Such an improvement is ascribed to the improved hot electron flux in MAPbI3 caused by effective light absorption from near-field enhancement of plasmonic Au and the efficient capture of hot electrons from Au nanoislands via the formation of a three-dimensional Schottky interface. The relation between the lifetime and flux of hot electrons was confirmed by femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy that showed considerably longer hot electron lifetimes in MAPbI3 combined with the plasmonic Au structure. These findings can provide a fundamental understanding of hot electron generation and transport in perovskite, which can provide helpful guidance to designing efficient hot carrier photovoltaics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujin Park
- Department of Chemistry , Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions , Institute for Basic Science (IBS) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
| | - Jungkweon Choi
- Department of Chemistry , Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions , Institute for Basic Science (IBS) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
- KI for the BioCentury , Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
| | - Changhwan Lee
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions , Institute for Basic Science (IBS) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
- Graduate School of EEWS , Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
| | - An-Na Cho
- School of Chemical Engineering and Department of Energy Science , Sungkyunkwan University , Suwon 440-746 , Republic of Korea
| | - Dae Won Cho
- Department of Advanced Materials Chemistry , Korea University , Sejong Campus , Sejong 30019 , Republic of Korea
| | - Nam-Gyu Park
- School of Chemical Engineering and Department of Energy Science , Sungkyunkwan University , Suwon 440-746 , Republic of Korea
| | - Hyotcherl Ihee
- Department of Chemistry , Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions , Institute for Basic Science (IBS) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
- KI for the BioCentury , Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Young Park
- Department of Chemistry , Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions , Institute for Basic Science (IBS) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
- Graduate School of EEWS , Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
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Jeon B, Lee H, Goddeti KC, Park JY. Hot Electron Transport on Three-Dimensional Pt/Mesoporous TiO 2 Schottky Nanodiodes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:15152-15159. [PMID: 30939872 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b02863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We present the design of a three-dimensional Pt/mesoporous TiO2 Schottky nanodiode that can capture hot electrons more effectively, compared with a typical two-dimensional Schottky diode. Both chemically induced and photon-induced hot electrons were measured on the three-dimensional Pt/mesoporous TiO2 Schottky nanodiode. An increase in the number of interfacial sites between the platinum and support oxide affects the collection of hot electrons generated by both the catalytic reaction and light injection. We show that hot electrons flowing 2.5 times higher are detected as the current in the mesoporous system, compared with typical two-dimensional nanodiode systems that have a planar Schottky junction. Identical trends for the chemicurrent and photocurrent in the mesoporous system demonstrate that the enhanced hot electrons are attributed to the larger interface area between the metal and the mesoporous TiO2 support fabricated by the anodization process. This three-dimensional Schottky nanodiode can provide insights into hot electron generation on a practical catalytic device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beomjoon Jeon
- Department of Chemistry , Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions , Institute for Basic Science , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
| | - Hyosun Lee
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions , Institute for Basic Science , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
| | - Kalyan C Goddeti
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions , Institute for Basic Science , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Young Park
- Department of Chemistry , Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
- Center for Nanomaterials and Chemical Reactions , Institute for Basic Science , Daejeon 305-701 , Republic of Korea
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8
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Three-dimensional hot electron photovoltaic device with vertically aligned TiO 2 nanotubes. Sci Rep 2018; 8:7330. [PMID: 29743488 PMCID: PMC5943325 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-25335-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanotubes with vertically aligned array structures show substantial advantages in solar cells as an electron transport material that offers a large surface area where charges travel linearly along the nanotubes. Integrating this one-dimensional semiconductor material with plasmonic metals to create a three-dimensional plasmonic nanodiode can influence solar energy conversion by utilizing the generated hot electrons. Here, we devised plasmonic Au/TiO2 and Ag/TiO2 nanodiode architectures composed of TiO2 nanotube arrays for enhanced photon absorption, and for the subsequent generation and capture of hot carriers. The photocurrents and incident photon to current conversion efficiencies (IPCE) were obtained as a function of photon energy for hot electron detection. We observed enhanced photocurrents and IPCE using the Ag/TiO2 nanodiode. The strong plasmonic peaks of the Au and Ag from the IPCE clearly indicate an enhancement of the hot electron flux resulting from the presence of surface plasmons. The calculated electric fields and the corresponding absorbances of the nanodiode using finite-difference time-domain simulation methods are also in good agreement with the experimental results. These results show a unique strategy of combining a hot electron photovoltaic device with a three-dimensional architecture, which has the clear advantages of maximizing light absorption and a metal–semiconductor interface area.
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Mirzaee SMA, Lebel O, Nunzi JM. Simple Unbiased Hot-Electron Polarization-Sensitive Near-Infrared Photodetector. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:11862-11871. [PMID: 29508603 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b17836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Plasmonic nanostructures can generate energetic "hot" electrons from light in a broad band fashion depending on their shape, size, and arrangement. Such structures have a promising use in photodetectors, allowing high speed, broad band, and multicolor photodetection. Because they function without a band gap absorption, photon detection at any energy would be possible through engineering of the plasmonic nanostructure. Herein, a compact hot-electron-based photodetector that combines polarization sensitivity and circularly polarized light detection in the near-infrared region was fabricated using an indium tin oxide (ITO)-Au hybrid layer. Furthermore, the sensitivity of the device was significantly increased by adding a poled Azo molecular glass film in a capacitor configuration. The resulting device is capable of detecting light below the ITO band gap at ambient temperature without any bias voltage. This photodetector, which is amenable to large-area fabrication, can be integrated with other nanophotonic and nanoplasmonic structures for operation at telecom wavelengths.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Olivier Lebel
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Royal Military College , Kingston , Ontario K7K 7B4 , Canada
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10
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Farhat M, Kais S, Alharbi FH. Plasmonically Enhanced Schottky Photovoltaic Devices. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14253. [PMID: 29079810 PMCID: PMC5660259 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14528-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Solar-cells based on Schottky junctions between metals and semiconductors (without or with an intermediate insulator) are among the main possibilities towards economical photovoltaic conversion of the solar energy. This is mainly due to their structural simplicity and hence the ease of their realization. We propose here a new kind of light-harvesting devices using plasmonic nano-antenna gratings, that enhance the absorption of light over a broadband spectrum, and permit the reduction of thickness of the cell dramatically, with efficiency around 15% for 3 micrometers ultra-thin Silicon cell. We show that this technique may provide a new avenue in low cost fabrication of thin-film solar-cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Farhat
- Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI), Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar.
| | - S Kais
- Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI), Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar.,Department of Chemistry, Department of Physics and Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - F H Alharbi
- Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI), Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar.,College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosei Ueno
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Tomoya Oshikiri
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Quan Sun
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Xu Shi
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Misawa
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
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