Multifunctional Fe2O3@PPy-PEG nanocomposite for combination cancer therapy with MR imaging

The Advancing Role of Nanocomposites in Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment

The relentless pursuit of effective cancer diagnosis and treatment strategies has led to the rapidly expanding field of nanotechnology, with a specific focus on nanocomposites. Nanocomposites, a combination of nanomaterials with diverse properties, have emerged as versatile tools in oncology, offering multifunctional platforms for targeted delivery, imaging, and therapeutic interventions. Nanocomposites exhibit great potential for early detection and accurate imaging in cancer diagnosis. Integrating various imaging modalities, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and fluorescence imaging, into nanocomposites enables the development of contrast agents with enhanced sensitivity and specificity. Moreover, functionalizing nanocomposites with targeting ligands ensures selective accumulation in tumor tissues, facilitating precise imaging and diagnostic accuracy. On the therapeutic front, nanocomposites have revolutionized cancer treatment by overcoming traditional challenges associated with drug delivery. The controlled release of therapeutic agents from nanocomposite carriers enhances drug bioavailability, reduces systemic toxicity, and improves overall treatment efficacy. Additionally, the integration of stimuli-responsive components within nanocomposites enables site-specific drug release triggered by the unique microenvironment of the tumor. Despite the remarkable progress in the field, challenges such as biocompatibility, scalability, and long-term safety profiles remain. This article provides a comprehensive overview of recent developments, challenges, and prospects, emphasizing the transformative potential of nanocomposites in revolutionizing the landscape of cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. In Conclusion, integrating nanocomposites in cancer diagnosis and treatment heralds a new era for precision medicine.

Skin Cancer Management: Current Scenario And Future Perspectives

Skin cancer is a life-threatening disease and has caused significant loss to human health across the globe. Its prevalence has been increasing every year and is one of the common malignancies in the case of organ transplant recipients, of which 95% constitute basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas. The prime factor causing skin cancer is UV radiation. Around the 20th century, sunlight was the primary cause of skin cancer. A novel hypothesis by US scientists stated that cutaneous melanoma was mainly due to recurrent exposure to the sun, whereas keratinocyte cancer occurred due to progressive accumulation of sun exposure. Management of skin cancer is done via various approaches, including cryotherapy, radiotherapy, and photodynamic therapy. Post-discovery of X-rays, radiotherapy has proven to treat skin cancers to some extent, but the indications are uncertain since it depends upon the type of tumour and surgical treatment required for the patient. Due to various limitations of skin cancer treatment and increased severity, there is a requirement for cost-effective, novel, and efficient treatment. Various nanocarriers such as SLNs, magnetic nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, etc., are the potential carriers in the management and prognosis of both non-melanoma and melanoma skin cancer. Various research and review databases and patent reports have been studied, and information compiled to extract the results. The review also discusses the role of various nanocarriers in treating and diagnosing skin cancer.

Advancement in magnetic hyperthermia-based targeted therapy for cancer treatment

Magnetic hyperthermia utilizing magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and an alternating magnetic field (AMF) represents a promising approach in the field of cancer treatment. Active targeting has emerged as a valuable strategy to enhance the effectiveness and specificity of drug delivery. Active targeting utilizes specific biomarkers that are predominantly found in abundance on cancer cells while being minimally expressed on healthy cells. Current comprehensive review provides an overview of several cancer-specific biomarkers, including human epidermal growth factor, transferrin, folate, luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone, integrin, cluster of differentiation (CD) receptors such as CD90, CD95, CD133, CD20, and CD44 also CXCR4 and vascular endothelial growth factor, these biomarkers bind to ligands present on the surface of MNPs, enabling precise targeting. Additionally, this review touches various combination therapies employed to combat cancer. Magnetic hyperthermia synergistically enhances the efficacy of conventional cancer treatments such as targeted chemotherapy, radiation therapy, gene therapy, and immunotherapy.

Effect of the Silica-Magnetite Nanocomposite Coating Functionalization on the Doxorubicin Sorption/Desorption

A series of new composite materials based on Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles coated with SiO2 (or aminated SiO2) were synthesized. It has been shown that the use of N-(phosphonomethyl)iminodiacetic acid (PMIDA) to stabilize nanoparticles before silanization ensures the increased content of a SiO2 phase in the Fe3O4@SiO2 nanocomposites (NCs) in comparison with materials obtained under similar conditions, but without PMIDA. It has been demonstrated for the first time that the presence of PMIDA on the surface of NCs increases the level of Dox loading due to specific binding, while surface modification with 3-aminopropylsilane, on the contrary, significantly reduces the sorption capacity of materials. These regularities were in accordance with the results of quantum chemical calculations. It has been shown that the energies of Dox binding to the functional groups of NCs are in good agreement with the experimental data on the Dox sorption on these NCs. The mechanisms of Dox binding to the surface of NCs were proposed: simultaneous coordination of Dox on the PMIDA molecule and silanol groups at the NC surface leads to a synergistic effect in Dox binding. The synthesized NCs exhibited pH-dependent Dox release, as well as dose-dependent cytotoxicity in in vitro experiments. The cytotoxic effects of the studied materials correspond to their calculated IC50 values. NCs with a SiO2 shell obtained using PMIDA exhibited the highest effect. At the same time, the presence of PMIDA in NCs makes it possible to increase the Dox loading, as well as to reduce its desorption rate, which may be useful in the design of drug delivery vehicles with a prolonged action. We believe that the data obtained can be further used to develop stimuli-responsive materials for targeted cancer chemotherapy.

Enhanced Uptake and Phototoxicity of C60@albumin Hybrids by Folate Bioconjugation

Fullerenes are considered excellent photosensitizers, being highly suitable for photodynamic therapy (PDT). A lack of water solubility and low biocompatibility are, in many instances, still hampering the full exploitation of their potential in nanomedicine. Here, we used human serum albumin (HSA) to disperse fullerenes by binding up to five fullerene cages inside the hydrophobic cavities. Albumin was bioconjugated with folic acid to specifically address the folate receptors that are usually overexpressed in several solid tumors. Concurrently, tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate, TRITC, a tag for imaging, was conjugated to C₆₀@HSA in order to build an effective phototheranostic platform. The in vitro experiments demonstrated that: (i) HSA disperses C₆₀ molecules in a physiological environment, (ii) HSA, upon C₆₀ binding, maintains its biological identity and biocompatibility, (iii) the C₆₀@HSA complex shows a significant visible-light-induced production of reactive oxygen species, and (iv) folate bioconjugation improves both the internalization and the PDT-induced phototoxicity of the C₆₀@HSA complex in HeLa cells.

Theranostic applications of stimulus-responsive systems based on Fe2O3

According to the interaction of nanoparticles with biological systems, enthusiasm for nanotechnology in biomedical applications has been developed in the past decades. Fe2O3 nanoparticles, as the most stable iron oxide, have special merits that make them useful widely for detecting diseases, therapy, drug delivery, and monitoring the therapeutic process. This review presents the fabrication methods of Fe2O3-based materials and their photocatalytic and magnetic properties. Then, we highlight the application of Fe2O3-based nanoparticles in diagnosis and imaging, different therapy methods, and finally, stimulus-responsive systems, such as pH-responsive, magnetic-responsive, redox-responsive, and enzyme-responsive, with an emphasis on cancer treatment. In addition, the potential of Fe2O3 to combine diagnosis and therapy within a single particle called theranostic agent will be discussed.

Stimuli-Responsive Iron Oxide Nanotheranostics: A Versatile and Powerful Approach for Cancer Therapy

Recent advancements in unravelling elements of cancer biology involved in disease progression and treatment resistance have highlighted the need for a holistic approach to effectively tackle cancer. Stimuli-responsive nanotheranostics based on iron oxide nanoparticles are an emerging class of versatile nanomedicines with powerful capabilities to "seek, sense, and attack" multiple components of solid tumors. In this work, the rationale for using iron oxide nanoparticles and the basic physical principles that impact their function in biomedical applications are reviewed. Subsequently, recent advances in the integration of iron oxide nanoparticles with various stimulus mechanisms to facilitate the development of stimuli-responsive nanotheranostics for application in cancer therapy are summarized. The integration of an iron oxide core with various surface coating mechanisms results in the generation of hybrid nanoconstructs with capabilities to codeliver a wide variety of highly potent anticancer therapeutics and immune modulators. Finally, emerging future directions and considerations for their clinical translation are touched upon.

Preparation of pH-sensitive chitosan/polyvinylpyrrolidone/α-Fe2O3 nanocomposite for drug delivery application: Emphasis on ameliorating restrictions

Chitosan (CS)/polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)/hematite (α-Fe₂O₃) nanocomposites loaded with Doxorubicin (drug model) were synthesized via an oil-in-water emulsification method to develop a biocompatible and pH-sensitive drug nanocarrier for the first time. A hydrogel, including CS, PVP, and α-Fe₂O₃, was fabricated successfully with glutaraldehyde (GA) as the cross-linker. Incorporating α-Fe₂O₃ into CS/PVP hydrogel improved the pH-sensitivity and developed beneficial hydrogel. FTIR and XRD analysis illustrated physical interactions between polymer-polymer, polymer-drug, and crystalline behavior of prepared nanocomposite. These analyses also confirmed chemical bonding in nanocomposite's structure. The FE-SEM analysis showed successful impregnation of α-Fe₂O₃ into CS/PVP matrix and spherical structure. To clarify the size distribution and surface charge of the drug-loaded nanocomposite (CS/PVP/α-Fe₂O₃/Dox), DLS and zeta analyses were conducted. They showed the mean size of nanocomposites at about 247 nm. Drug-loaded CS/PVP/α-Fe₂O₃ nanocomposite and CS/PVP/Dox were studied for their release behavior and kinetics. Furthermore, the effect of α-Fe₂O₃ on release from CS/PVP/α-Fe₂O₃/Dox nanocomposite was investigated. That showed an increase in encapsulation of Doxorubicin and beneficial release behavior such as slow-release and retention effect. The release from this drug-loaded nanocomposite revealed excellent pH-sensitive and controlled release of the drug. Besides, the in vitro cytotoxicity and cell apoptosis were studied to recognize biological properties. These analyses revealed that drug-loaded nanocomposite caused high inhibition to MCF-7 cells in presence of α-Fe₂O₃ and proved the hematite's anti-cancer effect. By and large, this study confirmed CS/PVP/α-Fe₂O₃ nanocomposites as a potential candidate for the controlled pH-sensitive release of the drug.

Stimuli-responsive and cellular targeted nanoplatforms for multimodal therapy of skin cancer

Interdisciplinary applications of nanopharmaceutical sciences have tremendous potential for enhancing pharmacokinetics, efficacy and safety of cancer therapy. The limitations of conventional therapeutic platforms used for skin cancer therapy have been largely overcome by the use of nanoplatforms. This review discusses various nanotechnological approaches experimented for the treatment of skin cancer. The review describes various polymeric, lipidic and inorganic nanoplatforms for efficient therapy of skin cancer. The stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms such as pH-responsive as well as temperature-responsive platforms have also been reviewed. Different strategies for potentiating the nanoparticles application for cancer therapy such as surface engineering, conjugation with drugs, stimulus-responsive and multimodal effect have also been discussed and compared with the available conventional treatments. Although, nanopharmaceuticals face challenges such as toxicity, cost and scale-up, efforts put-in to improve these drawbacks with continuous research would deliver exciting and promising results in coming days.

High-Performance Conducting Polymer Nanotube-based Liquid-Ion Gated Field-Effect Transistor Aptasensor for Dopamine Exocytosis

In this study, ultrasensitive and precise detection of a representative brain hormone, dopamine (DA), was demonstrated using functional conducting polymer nanotubes modified with aptamers. A high-performance aptasensor was composed of interdigitated microelectrodes (IMEs), carboxylated polypyrrole nanotubes (CPNTs) and DA-specific aptamers. The biosensors were constructed by sequential conjugation of CPNTs and aptamer molecules on the IMEs, and the substrate was integrated into a liquid-ion gating system surrounded by pH 7.4 buffer as an electrolyte. To confirm DA exocytosis based on aptasensors, DA sensitivity and selectivity were monitored using liquid-ion gated field-effect transistors (FETs). The minimum detection level (MDL; 100 pM) of the aptasensors was determined, and their MDL was optimized by controlling the diameter of the CPNTs owing to their different capacities for aptamer introduction. The MDL of CPNT aptasensors is sufficient for discriminating between healthy and unhealthy individuals because the total DA concentration in the blood of normal person is generally determined to be ca. 0.5 to 6.2 ng/mL (3.9 to 40.5 nM) by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (this information was obtained from a guidebook “Evidence-Based Medicine 2018 SCL “ which was published by Seoul Clinical Laboratory). The CPNTs with the smaller diameters (CPNT2: ca. 120 nm) showed 100 times higher sensitivity and selectivity than the wider CPNTs (CPNT1: ca. 200 nm). Moreover, the aptasensors based on CPNTs had excellent DA discrimination in the presence of various neurotransmitters. Based on the excellent sensing properties of these aptasensors, the DA levels of exogeneous DA samples that were prepared from PC12 cells by a DA release assay were successfully measured by DA kits, and the aptasensor sensing properties were compared to those of standard DA reagents. Finally, the real-time response values to the various exogeneous DA release levels were similar to those of a standard DA aptasensor. Therefore, CPNT-based aptasensors provide efficient and rapid DA screening for neuron-mediated genetic diseases such as Parkinson’s disease.

Comprehensive understanding of magnetic hyperthermia for improving antitumor therapeutic efficacy

Magnetic hyperthermia (MH) has been introduced clinically as an alternative approach for the focal treatment of tumors. MH utilizes the heat generated by the magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) when subjected to an alternating magnetic field (AMF). It has become an important topic in the nanomedical field due to their multitudes of advantages towards effective antitumor therapy such as high biosafety, deep tissue penetration, and targeted selective tumor killing. However, in order for MH to progress and to realize its paramount potential as an alternative choice for cancer treatment, tremendous challenges have to be overcome. Thus, the efficiency of MH therapy needs enhancement. In its recent 60-year of history, the field of MH has focused primarily on heating using MNPs for therapeutic applications. Increasing the thermal conversion efficiency of MNPs is the fundamental strategy for improving therapeutic efficacy. Recently, emerging experimental evidence indicates that MNPs-MH produces nano-scale heat effects without macroscopic temperature rise. A deep understanding of the effect of this localized induction heat for the destruction of subcellular/cellular structures further supports the efficacy of MH in improving therapeutic therapy. In this review, the currently available strategies for improving the antitumor therapeutic efficacy of MNPs-MH will be discussed. Firstly, the recent advancements in engineering MNP size, composition, shape, and surface to significantly improve their energy dissipation rates will be explored. Secondly, the latest studies depicting the effect of local induction heat for selectively disrupting cells/intracellular structures will be examined. Thirdly, strategies to enhance the therapeutics by combining MH therapy with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, photothermal/photodynamic therapy (PDT), and gene therapy will be reviewed. Lastly, the prospect and significant challenges in MH-based antitumor therapy will be discussed. This review is to provide a comprehensive understanding of MH for improving antitumor therapeutic efficacy, which would be of utmost benefit towards guiding the users and for the future development of MNPs-MH towards successful application in medicine.

Polarization of tumor-associated macrophage phenotype via porous hollow iron nanoparticles for tumor immunotherapy in vivo

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the most important components in the tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment, promoting tumor growth and metastasis. Although TAMs have become one of the hot topics of tumor immunotherapy, challenges still remain to achieve TAM-targeted re-polarization therapy. In this work, porous hollow iron oxide nanoparticles (PHNPs) were synthesized for loading a P13K γ small molecule inhibitor (3-methyladenine, 3-MA) and further modified by mannose to target TAMs. The delivery system named PHNPs@DPA-S-S-BSA-MA@3-MA showed good efficiency for targeting TAMs. The inflammatory factor NF-κB p65 of macrophages was activated by the combination of PHNPs and 3-MA, which synergistically switched TAMs to pro-inflammatory M1-type macrophages. As a result, it activated immune responses and inhibited tumor growth in vivo. The study provides an intracellular switch of the TAM phenotype for targeted TAM therapy.

Manganese-Based Nanoplatform As Metal Ion-Enhanced ROS Generator for Combined Chemodynamic/Photodynamic Therapy

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) with strong oxidizing and high activity have been regarded as an effective "weapon" for antitumor therapy, since it can induce organelle injury, oxidative damage, and cell death. Herein, hollow structured manganese carbonate (MnCO₃) nanocubes are fabricated and loaded with photosensitizer (chlorin e6, Ce6), obtaining a responsive nanoplatform H-MnCO₃/Ce6-PEG (HMCP NCs). Two different approaches to upregulate intracellular ROS level were realized by HMCP NCs. On one hand, with irradiation of external laser, Ce6 could generate singlet oxygen (¹O₂) through a multistep photochemical process applied in photodynamic therapy (PDT). On the other hand, MnCO₃ could be specifically degraded into Mn²⁺ in an acidic tumor microenvironment (TME), triggering Mn²⁺-activated Fenton-like reaction to convert endogenous H₂O₂ into hydroxyl radical (•OH). In vitro combined chemodynamic therapy (CDT) and PDT showed that the metal ion-enhanced ROS production could break the intracellular redox equilibrium, thus leading to cell death. In vivo combined CDT/PDT with HMCP NCs exhibited remarkably enhanced therapeutic efficacy in inhibiting tumor growth, without resulting in noticeable damage to normal tissues. This work presents a unique type of manganese-based nanoplatform for efficiently generating ROS in solid tumors, favorable for ROS-involved therapeutic strategies.

Oxygenated theranostic nanoplatforms with intracellular agglomeration behavior for improving the treatment efficacy of hypoxic tumors

Hypoxia plays vital roles in the development of tumor resistance against typical anticancer therapies and local reoxygenation has proved effective to overcome the hypoxia-induced chemoresistance. Perfluorocarbon (PFC) is an FDA approved oxygen carrier and currently vigorously investigated for oxygen delivery to tumors. This study reports a perfluorocarbon and etoposide (EP) loaded porous hollow Fe₃O₄-based theranostic nanoplatform capable of delivering oxygen to solid tumors to enhance their susceptibility against EP. Results show that oxygen could be released at a moderate rate from the porous hollow magnetic Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles (PHMNPs) over an extended period of time, therefore effectively reducing the hypoxia-induced EP resistance of tumor cells. Moreover, the surface of PHMNPs was modified with lactobionic acid (LA)-containing amphiphilic polymers via hydrophobic interaction, which could provide targeting effect against certain types of tumors. The hydrophilic moiety would be subsequently shed by the intratumoral GSH after cellular internalization and result in the agglomeration of nanocarriers inside tumor cells, consequently impeding the nanoparticle exocytosis to enhance their intracellular retention. The enhanced retention could elevate the intracellular EP level and effectively boost the tumor cell killing effect. In addition to the therapeutic benefits, the Fe₃O₄ nanocage could also be used for the magnetic resonance imaging of the tumor area. The assorted benefits of the composite nanosystem are anticipated to be advantageous for the treatment of drug-resistant hypoxic tumors.

Next-generation superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for cancer theranostics

Superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticles have been intensively studied for the development of contrast agents in MRI. First-generation SPIO nanoparticles had diagnostic capabilities only, whereas a new generation of SPIO nanoparticle has multifunctional characteristics for combined therapeutic and diagnostic applications. These theranostic nanoparticles hold great potential for image-guided cancer therapies. In particular, polymer-coated theranostic SPIO nanoparticles have enjoyed increasing attention as a result of good biocompatibility, biodegradability and versatile functionality endowed by polymeric matrices. This review provides an overview of recently developed polymer-coated multifunctional SPIO nanoparticles for cancer theranostics and discusses current challenges and future perspectives.

An internal magnetic field strategy to reuse pulverized active materials for high performance: a magnetic three-dimensional ordered macroporous TiO2/CoPt/α-Fe2O3 nanocomposite anode

An internally magnetic field was established by CoPt for attracting pulverized ferromagnetic α-Fe₂O₃. Combining with the unique porous structure for accommodating large volume change, the TiO₂/CoPt/α-Fe₂O₃ (3DOMTCF) anode demonstrated high reversible capacity and extremely promising cyclic stability.

Recent advances in different modal imaging-guided photothermal therapy

Photothermal therapy (PTT) has recently attracted considerable attention owing to its controllable treatment process, high tumour eradication efficiency and minimal side effects on non-cancer cells. PTT can melt cancerous cells by localising tissue hyperthermia induced by internalised therapeutic agents with a high photothermal conversion efficiency under external laser irradiation. Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have shown the significant potential of PTT to treat tumours in future practical applications. Unfortunately, the lack of visualisation towards agent delivery and internalisation, as well as imaging-guided comprehensive evaluation of therapeutic outcome, limits its further application. Developments in combined photothermal therapeutic nanoplatforms guided by different imaging modalities have compensated for the major drawback of PTT alone, proving PTT to be a promising technique in biomedical applications. In this review, we introduce recent developments in different imaging modalities including single-modal, dual-modal, triple-modal and even multi-modal imaging-guided PTT, together with imaging-guided multi-functional theranostic nanoplatforms.