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Xia Q, Pan Y, Liu B, Zhang X, Li E, Shen T, Li S, Xu N, Ding J, Wang C, Vecitis CD, Gao G. Solar-driven abnormal evaporation of nanoconfined water. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadj3760. [PMID: 38820164 PMCID: PMC11141626 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adj3760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
Intrinsic water evaporation demands a high energy input, which limits the efficacy of conventional interfacial solar evaporators. Here, we propose a nanoconfinement strategy altering inherent properties of water for solar-driven water evaporation using a highly uniform composite of vertically aligned Janus carbon nanotubes (CNTs). The water evaporation from the CNT shows the unexpected diameter-dependent evaporation rate, increasing abnormally with decreasing nanochannel diameter. The evaporation rate of CNT10@AAO evaporator thermodynamically exceeds the theoretical limit (1.47 kg m-2 hour-1 under one sun). A hybrid experimental, theoretical, and molecular simulation approach provided fundamental evidence of different nanoconfined water properties. The decreased number of H-bonds and lower interaction energy barrier of water molecules within CNT and formed water clusters may be one of the reasons for the less evaporative energy activating rapid nanoconfined water vaporization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiancheng Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yifan Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides Bât. 510, Université Paris Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - Bin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- College of Safety Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, Jiangsu, China
| | - Enze Li
- Institute of Resources and Environmental Engineering, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization Technology of Coal Waste Resources, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Tao Shen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China
| | - Shuang Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China
| | - Ning Xu
- College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Jie Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Chao Wang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225002, China
| | - Chad D. Vecitis
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Guandao Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
- Chongqing Innovation Research Institute of Nanjing University, Chongqing 401121, China
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Ronghe A, Ayappa KG. Graphene Nanopores Enhance Water Evaporation from Salt Solutions: Exploring the Effects of Ions and Concentration. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2023. [PMID: 37312291 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c00797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
With increased water stress, the development of clean water technologies is an active area of research. Evaporation-based solutions offer the advantage of low energy consumption, and recently a 10-30 fold enhancement in water evaporation flux has been observed through Å-scale graphene nanopores (Lee, W.-C., et al., ACS Nano 2022, 16(9), 15382). Herein, using molecular dynamics simulations, we examine the suitability of Å-scale graphene nanopores in enhancing water evaporation from salt solutions (LiCl, NaCl, and KCl). Cation-π interactions between ions and the surface of nanoporous graphene are found to significantly influence ion populations in the nanopore vicinity, leading to varied water evaporation fluxes from different salt solutions. The highest water evaporation flux was observed for KCl solutions, followed by NaCl and LiCl solutions, with the differences reducing at lower concentrations. Relative to the bare liquid-vapor interface, 4.54 Å nanopores exhibit the highest evaporation flux enhancements ranging from 7 to 11, with an enhancement of 10.8 obtained for 0.6 M NaCl solution, which closely resembles seawater compositions. Functionalized nanopores induce short-lived water-water hydrogen bonds and reduce surface tension at the liquid-vapor interface, thereby lowering the free energy barrier for water evaporation with a negligible effect on the ion hydration dynamics. These findings can aid in developing green technologies for desalination and separation processes with low thermal energy input.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anshaj Ronghe
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - K Ganapathy Ayappa
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
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3
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Lee WC, Ronghe A, Villalobos LF, Huang S, Dakhchoune M, Mensi M, Hsu KJ, Ayappa KG, Agrawal KV. Enhanced Water Evaporation from Å-Scale Graphene Nanopores. ACS NANO 2022; 16:15382-15396. [PMID: 36000823 PMCID: PMC9527801 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c07193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Enhancing the kinetics of liquid-vapor transition from nanoscale confinements is an attractive strategy for developing evaporation and separation applications. The ultimate limit of confinement for evaporation is an atom thick interface hosting angstrom-scale nanopores. Herein, using a combined experimental/computational approach, we report highly enhanced water evaporation rates when angstrom sized oxygen-functionalized graphene nanopores are placed at the liquid-vapor interface. The evaporation flux increases for the smaller nanopores with an enhancement up to 35-fold with respect to the bare liquid-vapor interface. Molecular dynamics simulations reveal that oxygen-functionalized nanopores render rapid rotational and translational dynamics to the water molecules due to a reduced and short-lived water-water hydrogen bonding. The potential of mean force (PMF) reveals that the free energy barrier for water evaporation decreases in the presence of nanopores at the atomically thin interface, which further explains the enhancement in evaporation flux. These findings can enable the development of energy-efficient technologies relying on water evaporation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Chi Lee
- Laboratory
of Advanced Separations (LAS), École
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Sion 1950, Switzerland
| | - Anshaj Ronghe
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute
of Science, Bangalore, 560012, India
| | - Luis Francisco Villalobos
- Laboratory
of Advanced Separations (LAS), École
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Sion 1950, Switzerland
| | - Shiqi Huang
- Laboratory
of Advanced Separations (LAS), École
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Sion 1950, Switzerland
| | - Mostapha Dakhchoune
- Laboratory
of Advanced Separations (LAS), École
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Sion 1950, Switzerland
| | - Mounir Mensi
- Institut
des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques (ISIC), EPFL, Sion 1950, Switzerland
| | - Kuang-Jung Hsu
- Laboratory
of Advanced Separations (LAS), École
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Sion 1950, Switzerland
| | - K. Ganapathy Ayappa
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute
of Science, Bangalore, 560012, India
| | - Kumar Varoon Agrawal
- Laboratory
of Advanced Separations (LAS), École
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Sion 1950, Switzerland
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4
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Seifi T, Kamali AR. The influence of mechanochemical treatment in hexane on dispersibility and floatability of graphite flakes with enhanced water evaporation performance. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2022.128326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Zhao S, Jiang C, Fan J, Hong S, Mei P, Yao R, Liu Y, Zhang S, Li H, Zhang H, Sun C, Guo Z, Shao P, Zhu Y, Zhang J, Guo L, Ma Y, Zhang J, Feng X, Wang F, Wu H, Wang B. Hydrophilicity gradient in covalent organic frameworks for membrane distillation. NATURE MATERIALS 2021; 20:1551-1558. [PMID: 34294883 DOI: 10.1038/s41563-021-01052-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Desalination can help to alleviate the fresh-water crisis facing the world. Thermally driven membrane distillation is a promising way to purify water from a variety of saline and polluted sources by utilizing low-grade heat. However, membrane distillation membranes suffer from limited permeance and wetting owing to the lack of precise structural control. Here, we report a strategy to fabricate membrane distillation membranes composed of vertically aligned channels with a hydrophilicity gradient by engineering defects in covalent organic framework films by the removal of imine bonds. Such functional variation in individual channels enables a selective water transport pathway and a precise liquid-vapour phase change interface. In addition to having anti-fouling and anti-wetting capability, the covalent organic framework membrane on a supporting layer shows a flux of 600 l m-2 h-1 with 85 °C feed at 16 kPa absolute pressure, which is nearly triple that of the state-of-the-art membrane distillation membrane for desalination. Our results may promote the development of gradient membranes for molecular sieving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Zhao
- Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, P. R. China
- Advanced Technology Research Institute (Jinan), Beijing Institute of Technology, Jinan, P. R. China
| | - Chenghao Jiang
- Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Jingcun Fan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mechanical Behavior and Design of Materials, Department of Modern Mechanics, CAS Center for Excellence in Complex System Mechanics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, P. R. China
| | - Shanshan Hong
- Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Pei Mei
- Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Ruxin Yao
- Key Laboratory of Magnetic Molecules and Magnetic Information Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Materials Science, Shanxi Normal University, Linfen, P. R. China
| | - Yilin Liu
- Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Sule Zhang
- Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Hui Li
- Advanced Technology Research Institute (Jinan), Beijing Institute of Technology, Jinan, P. R. China
| | - Huaqian Zhang
- Advanced Technology Research Institute (Jinan), Beijing Institute of Technology, Jinan, P. R. China
| | - Chao Sun
- Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Zhenbin Guo
- Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, P. R. China
- Advanced Technology Research Institute (Jinan), Beijing Institute of Technology, Jinan, P. R. China
| | - Pengpeng Shao
- Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Yuhao Zhu
- Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Jinwei Zhang
- Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Linshuo Guo
- School of Physical Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Yanhang Ma
- School of Physical Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Jianqi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Nanosystem and Hierarchical Fabrication, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Xiao Feng
- Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, P. R. China.
- Advanced Technology Research Institute (Jinan), Beijing Institute of Technology, Jinan, P. R. China.
| | - Fengchao Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mechanical Behavior and Design of Materials, Department of Modern Mechanics, CAS Center for Excellence in Complex System Mechanics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, P. R. China.
| | - Hengan Wu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mechanical Behavior and Design of Materials, Department of Modern Mechanics, CAS Center for Excellence in Complex System Mechanics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, P. R. China
| | - Bo Wang
- Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, P. R. China.
- Advanced Technology Research Institute (Jinan), Beijing Institute of Technology, Jinan, P. R. China.
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Fei J, Ding B, Koh SW, Ge J, Wang X, Lee L, Sun Z, Yao M, Chen Y, Gao H, Li H. Mechanistic Investigation of Electrostatic Field-Enhanced Water Evaporation. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2021; 8:e2100875. [PMID: 34309229 PMCID: PMC8456210 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202100875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 05/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Investigations on external electrostatic field (EEF)-enhanced liquid water evaporation have been reported decades ago, which suggest that molecular alignment and polarization tuned by EEF accelerating the phase change process could be responsible for EEF-enhanced water evaporation. However, a detailed study revealing the role of EEF in altering the intermolecular and intramolecular water structure is lacking. Herein, an EEF is proved to tune water state by accelerating the thermal movement of water molecules, lowering the molecular escaping energy, and loosening the hydrogen bond structure. The detailed mechanisms and field interactions (heat and electrostatic) are investigated by in situ Raman characterizations and molecular dynamic simulations, which reveal that an EEF can effectively reduce the free energy barrier of water evaporation and then increase the evaporated water molecule flux. As a proof of concept, an EEF is integrated into an interfacial two-dimentional solar steam generator, enhancing the efficiency by up to 15.6%. Similar to a catalyst lowing activation energy and enhancing kinetics of a chemical reaction, the EEF enhances water state tuning, lowers evaporation enthalpy, and then boosts steam generation rate with negligible additional energy consumption, which can serve as a generic method for water evaporation enhancement in water harvesting, purification, and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jipeng Fei
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingapore639798Singapore
| | - Bin Ding
- Institute of Solid MechanicsBeihang UniversityBeijing100191P. R. China
- Institute of High Performance ComputingA*STARSingapore138632Singapore
| | - See Wee Koh
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingapore639798Singapore
| | - Junyu Ge
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingapore639798Singapore
| | - Xingli Wang
- School of Electric and Electronic EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingapore639798Singapore
| | - Liquan Lee
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingapore639798Singapore
| | - Zixu Sun
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingapore639798Singapore
| | - Mengqi Yao
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingapore639798Singapore
| | - Yonghao Chen
- School of Chemical and Biomedical EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingapore637457Singapore
| | - Huajian Gao
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingapore639798Singapore
- Institute of High Performance ComputingA*STARSingapore138632Singapore
| | - Hong Li
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingapore639798Singapore
- School of Electric and Electronic EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingapore639798Singapore
- CINTRA CNRS/NTU/THALESUMI 3288Research Techno PlazaSingapore637553Singapore
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7
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Davoodabadi A, Ghasemi H. Evaporation in nano/molecular materials. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2021; 290:102385. [PMID: 33662599 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2021.102385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Evaporation is a physical phenomenon with fundamental significance to both nature and technology ranging from plant transpiration to DNA engineering. Various analytical and empirical relationships have been proposed to characterize evaporation kinetics at macroscopic scales. However, theoretical models to describe the kinetics of evaporation from nano and sub-nanometer (molecular) confinements are absent. On the other hand, the fast advancements in technology concentrated on development of nano/molecular-scale devices demand appropriate models that can accurately predict physics of phase-change in these systems. A thorough understanding of the physics of evaporation in nano/molecular materials is, thus, of critical importance to develop the required models. This understanding is also crucial to explain the intriguing evaporation-related phenomena that only take place when the characteristic length of the system drops to several nanometers. Here, we comprehensively review the underlying physics of evaporation phenomenon and discuss the effects of nano/molecular confinement on evaporation. The role of liquid-wall interface-related phenomena including the effects of disjoining pressure and flow slippage on evaporation from nano/molecular confinements are discussed. Different driving forces that can induce evaporation in small confinements, such as heat transfer, pressure drop, cavitation and density fluctuations are elaborated. Hydrophobic confinement induced evaporation and its potential application for synthetic ion channels are discussed in detail. Evaporation of water as molecular clusters rather than isolated molecules is discussed. Despite the lack of experimental investigations on evaporation at nanoscale, there exist an extensive body of literature that have applied different simulation techniques to predict the phase change behavior of liquids in nanoconfinements. We infer that exploring the effect of electrostatic interactions and flow slippage to enhance evaporation from nanoconduits is an interesting topic for future endeavors. Further future studies could be devoted to developing nano/molecular channels with evaporation-based gating mechanism and utilization of 2D materials to tune energy barrier for evaporation leading to enhanced evaporation.
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Li N, Guo C, Shi H, Xu Z, Xu P, Teng K, Shan M, Qian X. Analysis of Mg 2+/Li + separation mechanism by charged nanofiltration membranes: visual simulation. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 32:085703. [PMID: 33176292 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/abc98b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The mechanism of the nanofiltration (NF) membrane separation of Mg2+ and Li+ needs to be further investigated, but some commonly used model theories are abstract, which makes them difficult to understand. More importantly, the relationship between the membrane charge and separation performance of Mg2+ and Li+ cannot be quantitatively analyzed. It is worth studying these challenges and providing a performance boost for Mg2+/Li+ filtration applications of NF membranes. Here, various NF membranes, with the membrane volumetric charge density increasing from -4.69 to 7.02 mol · m-3, were fabricated via interfacial polymerization. For these membranes, the separation factor S Mg,Li was decreased from 0.41 to 0.20. Importantly, the visual simulation results were consistent with the experimental results as a whole. The separation factor S Mg,Li decreased with the increase of volumetric charge density, and the minimum separation factor S Mg,Li of the NF membranes was 0.20 (experiment) and 0.17 (simulation), respectively. This meant that the performance of the positively charged NF membrane was not fully developed. Furthermore, we analyzed the relationship between the membrane charge and separation performance, and visualized the simulation of the NF membrane filtration and separation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, School of Textiles Science and Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, People's Republic of China
| | - Changsheng Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, School of Textiles Science and Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, People's Republic of China
| | - Haiting Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, School of Textiles Science and Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhiwei Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, School of Textiles Science and Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, School of Textiles Science and Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, People's Republic of China
| | - Kunyue Teng
- State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, School of Textiles Science and Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingjing Shan
- State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, School of Textiles Science and Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoming Qian
- State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, School of Textiles Science and Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, People's Republic of China
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Abstract
Nanoconfined fluids (NCFs), which are confined in nanospaces, exhibit distinctive nanoscale effects, including surface effects, small-size effects, quantum effects, and others. The continuous medium hypothesis in fluid mechanics is not valid in this context because of the comparable characteristic length of spaces and molecular mean free path, and accordingly, the classical continuum theories developed for the bulk fluids usually cannot describe the mass and energy transport of NCFs. In this Perspective, we summarize the nanoscale effects on the thermodynamics, mass transport, flow dynamics, heat transfer, phase change, and energy transport of NCFs and highlight the related representative works. The applications of NCFs in the fields of membrane separation, oil and gas production, energy harvesting and storage, and biological engineering are especially indicated. Currently, the theoretical description framework of NCFs is still missing, and it is expected that this framework can be established by adopting the classical continuum theories with the consideration of nanoscale effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengzhen Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi 710049, China
| | - Runfeng Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi 710049, China
| | - Zhixiang Zhao
- School of Urban Planning and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an Polytechnic University, Shaanxi 710048, China
| | - Bofeng Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi 710049, China
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