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Matsukata T, Ogura S, García de Abajo FJ, Sannomiya T. Simultaneous Nanoscale Excitation and Emission Mapping by Cathodoluminescence. ACS NANO 2022; 16:21462-21470. [PMID: 36414014 PMCID: PMC9799067 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c09973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Free-electron-based spectroscopies can reveal the nanoscale optical properties of semiconductor materials and nanophotonic devices with a spatial resolution far beyond the diffraction limit of light. However, the retrieved spatial information is constrained to the excitation space defined by the electron beam position, while information on the delocalization associated with the spatial extension of the probed optical modes in the specimen has so far been missing, despite its relevance in ruling the optical properties of nanostructures. In this study, we demonstrate a cathodoluminescence method that can access both excitation and emission spaces at the nanoscale, illustrating the power of such a simultaneous excitation and emission mapping technique by revealing a subwavelength emission position modulation as well as by visualizing electromagnetic energy transport in nanoplasmonic systems. Besides the fundamental interest of these results, our technique grants us access into previously inaccessible nanoscale optical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taeko Matsukata
- Department
of Materials Science and Technology, School of Materials and Chemical
Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta Midoriku, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan
| | - Shintaro Ogura
- Department
of Materials Science and Technology, School of Materials and Chemical
Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta Midoriku, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan
| | - F. Javier García de Abajo
- ICFO-Institut
de Ciencies Fotoniques, The Barcelona Institute of Science
and Technology, 08860 Castelldefels, Barcelona, Spain
- ICREA-Institució
Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avancats, Passeig Lluís Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Takumi Sannomiya
- Department
of Materials Science and Technology, School of Materials and Chemical
Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta Midoriku, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan
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2
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Botifoll M, Pinto-Huguet I, Arbiol J. Machine learning in electron microscopy for advanced nanocharacterization: current developments, available tools and future outlook. NANOSCALE HORIZONS 2022; 7:1427-1477. [PMID: 36239693 DOI: 10.1039/d2nh00377e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In the last few years, electron microscopy has experienced a new methodological paradigm aimed to fix the bottlenecks and overcome the challenges of its analytical workflow. Machine learning and artificial intelligence are answering this call providing powerful resources towards automation, exploration, and development. In this review, we evaluate the state-of-the-art of machine learning applied to electron microscopy (and obliquely, to materials and nano-sciences). We start from the traditional imaging techniques to reach the newest higher-dimensionality ones, also covering the recent advances in spectroscopy and tomography. Additionally, the present review provides a practical guide for microscopists, and in general for material scientists, but not necessarily advanced machine learning practitioners, to straightforwardly apply the offered set of tools to their own research. To conclude, we explore the state-of-the-art of other disciplines with a broader experience in applying artificial intelligence methods to their research (e.g., high-energy physics, astronomy, Earth sciences, and even robotics, videogames, or marketing and finances), in order to narrow down the incoming future of electron microscopy, its challenges and outlook.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Botifoll
- Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.
| | - Ivan Pinto-Huguet
- Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.
| | - Jordi Arbiol
- Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.
- ICREA, Pg. Lluís Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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3
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Torabi A, Sullivan J, Reich C, Wunch MA, Garcia JA, Beck C, Munshi AH, Shimpi T, Roberts M, Sampath W, Harvey TB. Quantitative Cathodoluminescence Mapping: A CdMgSeTe Thin-Film Case Study. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:36873-36879. [PMID: 36278043 PMCID: PMC9583303 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c05640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Full-spectrum cathodoluminescence (CL) mapping provides a point-by-point spatial measurement of the apparent band gap of a semiconductor thin film. In most studies, analysis of the electrical film properties from CL is presented as color mapping images. We have developed a spectra data analysis algorithm to functionalize, analyze, and generate statistical measurements of the luminescence data to provide additional insights. This algorithm was coded in the R language program, and a set of CdMgSeTe films were studied as an application case study. CL maps were measured for samples with different luminescent responses. A quantitative measure of the heterogeneity of the films was generated by statistical analysis of luminescent intensity and wavelength, spectra type curves, frequency distributions of peak wavelength, and relative intensity maps. The final CL analysis facilitates the investigation of the CdMgSeTe films and has potential applications for many semiconductor films.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aida Torabi
- Department
of Science and Mathematics, Texas A&M
University-Central Texas, Killeen, Texas 76549, United States
| | - James Sullivan
- Department
of Science and Mathematics, Texas A&M
University-Central Texas, Killeen, Texas 76549, United States
| | - Carey Reich
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
| | - Melissa A. Wunch
- Department
of Science and Mathematics, Texas A&M
University-Central Texas, Killeen, Texas 76549, United States
| | - Juan Alexandro Garcia
- Department
of Science and Mathematics, Texas A&M
University-Central Texas, Killeen, Texas 76549, United States
| | - Claudia Beck
- Department
of Science and Mathematics, Texas A&M
University-Central Texas, Killeen, Texas 76549, United States
| | - Amit H. Munshi
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
| | - Tushar Shimpi
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
| | - Mienie Roberts
- Department
of Science and Mathematics, Texas A&M
University-Central Texas, Killeen, Texas 76549, United States
| | - Walajabad Sampath
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
| | - Taylor B. Harvey
- Department
of Science and Mathematics, Texas A&M
University-Central Texas, Killeen, Texas 76549, United States
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4
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Ek M, Petersson CLM, Wallentin J, Wahlqvist D, Ahadi A, Borgström M, Wallenberg R. Compositional analysis of oxide-embedded III-V nanostructures. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 33:375705. [PMID: 35667366 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac75fa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Nanowire growth enables creation of embedded heterostructures, where one material is completely surrounded by another. Through materials-selective post-growth oxidation it is also possible to combine amorphous oxides and crystalline, e.g. III-V materials. Such oxide-embedded structures pose a challenge for compositional characterization through transmission electron microscopy since the materials will overlap in projection. Furthermore, materials electrically isolated by an embedding oxide are more sensitive to electron beam-induced alterations. Methods that can directly isolate the embedded material, preferably at reduced electron doses, will be required in this situation. Here, we analyse the performance of two such techniques-local lattice parameter measurements from high resolution micrographs and bulk plasmon energy measurements from electron energy loss spectra-by applying them to analyse InP-AlInP segments embedded in amorphous aluminium oxide. We demonstrate the complementarity of the two methods, which show an overall excellent agreement. However, in regions with residual strain, which we analyse through molecular dynamics simulations, the two techniques diverge from the true value in opposite directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Ek
- Centre for Analysis and Synthesis, Lund University, Box 124, SE-22100, Lund, Sweden
- NanoLund, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
| | - C Leon M Petersson
- Division of Mechanics, LTH, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100, Lund, Sweden
| | - Jesper Wallentin
- NanoLund, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
- Synchrotron Radiation Research, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100, Lund, Sweden
| | - David Wahlqvist
- Centre for Analysis and Synthesis, Lund University, Box 124, SE-22100, Lund, Sweden
- NanoLund, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
| | - Aylin Ahadi
- NanoLund, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
- Division of Mechanics, LTH, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100, Lund, Sweden
| | - Magnus Borgström
- NanoLund, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
- Solid State Physics, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100, Lund, Sweden
| | - Reine Wallenberg
- Centre for Analysis and Synthesis, Lund University, Box 124, SE-22100, Lund, Sweden
- NanoLund, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
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5
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STEM Tools for Semiconductor Characterization: Beyond High-Resolution Imaging. NANOMATERIALS 2022; 12:nano12030337. [PMID: 35159686 PMCID: PMC8840450 DOI: 10.3390/nano12030337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
The smart engineering of novel semiconductor devices relies on the development of optimized functional materials suitable for the design of improved systems with advanced capabilities aside from better efficiencies. Thereby, the characterization of these materials at the highest level attainable is crucial for leading a proper understanding of their working principle. Due to the striking effect of atomic features on the behavior of semiconductor quantum- and nanostructures, scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) tools have been broadly employed for their characterization. Indeed, STEM provides a manifold characterization tool achieving insights on, not only the atomic structure and chemical composition of the analyzed materials, but also probing internal electric fields, plasmonic oscillations, light emission, band gap determination, electric field measurements, and many other properties. The emergence of new detectors and novel instrumental designs allowing the simultaneous collection of several signals render the perfect playground for the development of highly customized experiments specifically designed for the required analyses. This paper presents some of the most useful STEM techniques and several strategies and methodologies applied to address the specific analysis on semiconductors. STEM imaging, spectroscopies, 4D-STEM (in particular DPC), and in situ STEM are summarized, showing their potential use for the characterization of semiconductor nanostructured materials through recent reported studies.
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6
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Chen R, Li L, Jiang L, Yu X, Zhu D, Xiong Y, Zheng D, Yang W. Small-diameter p-type SnS nanowire photodetectors and phototransistors with low-noise and high-performance. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 33:135707. [PMID: 34933293 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac451f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
P-type nanostructured photodetectors and phototransistors have been widely used in the field of photodetection due to their excellent electrical and optoelectronic characteristics. However, the large dark current of p-type photodetectors will limit the detectivity. Herein, we synthesized small-diameter single-crystalline p-type SnS nanowires (NWs) and then fabricated single SnS NW photodetectors and phototransistors. The device exhibits low noise and low dark current, and its noise current power is as low as 2.4 × 10-28A2. Under 830 nm illumination and low power density of 0.12 mW cm-2, the photoconductive gain, responsivity and detectivity of the photodetector are as high as 3.9 × 102, 2.6 × 102A W-1and 1.8 × 1013Jones, respectively, at zero gate voltage. The rise and fall time of response are about 9.6 and 14 ms. The experimental results show that the small-diameter p-type SnS NWs have broad application prospects in high-performance and low-power photodetectors with high sensitivity, fast response speed and wide spectrum detection in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruoling Chen
- School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, People's Republic of China
| | - Long Li
- School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, People's Republic of China
| | - Long Jiang
- School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiangxiang Yu
- School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, People's Republic of China
| | - Desheng Zhu
- School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Xiong
- School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, People's Republic of China
| | - Dingshan Zheng
- School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenxing Yang
- School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, People's Republic of China
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7
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Spadaro MC, Escobar Steinvall S, Dzade NY, Martí-Sánchez S, Torres-Vila P, Stutz EZ, Zamani M, Paul R, Leran JB, Fontcuberta I Morral A, Arbiol J. Rotated domains in selective area epitaxy grown Zn 3P 2: formation mechanism and functionality. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:18441-18450. [PMID: 34751695 PMCID: PMC8900489 DOI: 10.1039/d1nr06190a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Zinc phosphide (Zn3P2) is an ideal absorber candidate for solar cells thanks to its direct bandgap, earth-abundance, and optoelectronic characteristics, albeit it has been insufficiently investigated due to limitations in the fabrication of high-quality material. It is possible to overcome these factors by obtaining the material as nanostructures, e.g. via the selective area epitaxy approach, enabling additional strain relaxation mechanisms and minimizing the interface area. We demonstrate that Zn3P2 nanowires grow mostly defect-free when growth is oriented along the [100] and [110] of the crystal, which is obtained in nanoscale openings along the [110] and [010] on InP(100). We detect the presence of two stable rotated crystal domains that coexist in the structure. They are due to a change in the growth facet, which originates either from the island formation and merging in the initial stages of growth or lateral overgrowth. These domains have been visualized through 3D atomic models and confirmed with image simulations of the atomic scale electron micrographs. Density functional theory simulations describe the rotated domains' formation mechanism and demonstrate their lattice-matched epitaxial relation. In addition, the energies of the shallow states predicted closely agree with transition energies observed by experimental studies and offer a potential origin for these defect transitions. Our study represents an important step forward in the understanding of Zn3P2 and thus for the realisation of solar cells to respond to the present call for sustainable photovoltaic technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Chiara Spadaro
- Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Catalonia, 08193, Spain.
| | - Simon Escobar Steinvall
- Laboratory of Semiconductor Materials, Institute of Materials, Faculty of Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Nelson Y Dzade
- School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, CF10 3AT Cardiff, UK
- Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Sara Martí-Sánchez
- Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Catalonia, 08193, Spain.
| | - Pol Torres-Vila
- Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Catalonia, 08193, Spain.
| | - Elias Z Stutz
- Laboratory of Semiconductor Materials, Institute of Materials, Faculty of Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Mahdi Zamani
- Laboratory of Semiconductor Materials, Institute of Materials, Faculty of Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Rajrupa Paul
- Laboratory of Semiconductor Materials, Institute of Materials, Faculty of Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Jean-Baptiste Leran
- Laboratory of Semiconductor Materials, Institute of Materials, Faculty of Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Anna Fontcuberta I Morral
- Laboratory of Semiconductor Materials, Institute of Materials, Faculty of Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
- Institute of Physics, Faculty of Basic Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jordi Arbiol
- Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Catalonia, 08193, Spain.
- ICREA, Pg. Lluís Companys 23, 08010, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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8
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Escobar Steinvall S, Ghisalberti L, Zamani RR, Tappy N, Hage FS, Stutz EZ, Zamani M, Paul R, Leran JB, Ramasse QM, Craig Carter W, Fontcuberta I Morral A. Heterotwin Zn 3P 2 superlattice nanowires: the role of indium insertion in the superlattice formation mechanism and their optical properties. NANOSCALE 2020; 12:22534-22540. [PMID: 33090166 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr05852a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Zinc phosphide (Zn3P2) nanowires constitute prospective building blocks for next generation solar cells due to the combination of suitable optoelectronic properties and an abundance of the constituting elements in the Earth's crust. The generation of periodic superstructures along the nanowire axis could provide an additional mechanism to tune their functional properties. Here we present the vapour-liquid-solid growth of zinc phosphide superlattices driven by periodic heterotwins. This uncommon planar defect involves the exchange of Zn by In at the twinning boundary. We find that the zigzag superlattice formation is driven by reduction of the total surface energy of the liquid droplet. The chemical variation across the heterotwin does not affect the homogeneity of the optical properties, as measured by cathodoluminescence. The basic understanding provided here brings new propsects on the use of II-V semiconductors in nanowire technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Escobar Steinvall
- Laboratory of Semiconductor Materials, Institute of Materials École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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9
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Ek M, Lehmann S, Wallenberg R. Electron channelling: challenges and opportunities for compositional analysis of nanowires by TEM. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2020; 31:364005. [PMID: 32454471 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ab9679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy in a transmission electron microscope is often the first method employed to characterize the composition of nanowires. Ideally, it should be accurate and sensitive down to fractions of an atomic percent, and quantification results are often reported as such. However, one can often get substantial errors in accuracy even though the precision is high: for nanowires it is common for the quantified V/III atomic ratios to differ noticeably from 1. Here we analyse the origin of this systematic error in accuracy for quantification of the composition of III-V nanowires. By varying the electron illumination direction, we find electron channelling to be the primary cause, being responsible for errors in quantified V/III atomic ratio of 50%. Knowing the source of the systematic errors is required for applying appropriate corrections. Lastly, we show how channelling effects can provide information on the crystallographic position of dopants.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ek
- Centre for Analysis and Synthesis, Lund University, Box 124, Lund 22100, Sweden. NanoLund, Lund University, Box 118, Lund 22100, Sweden
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10
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Volokh M, Mokari T. Metal/semiconductor interfaces in nanoscale objects: synthesis, emerging properties and applications of hybrid nanostructures. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2020; 2:930-961. [PMID: 36133041 PMCID: PMC9418511 DOI: 10.1039/c9na00729f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Hybrid nanostructures, composed of multi-component crystals of various shapes, sizes and compositions are much sought-after functional materials. Pairing the ability to tune each material separately and controllably combine two (or more) domains with defined spatial orientation results in new properties. In this review, we discuss the various synthetic mechanisms for the formation of hybrid nanostructures of various complexities containing at least one metal/semiconductor interface, with a focus on colloidal chemistry. Different synthetic approaches, alongside the underlying kinetic and thermodynamic principles are discussed, and future advancement prospects are evaluated. Furthermore, the proved unique properties are reviewed with emphasis on the connection between the synthetic method and the resulting physical, chemical and optical properties with applications in fields such as photocatalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Volokh
- Department of Chemistry, Ilse Katz Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Beer-Sheva 8410501 Israel
| | - Taleb Mokari
- Department of Chemistry, Ilse Katz Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Beer-Sheva 8410501 Israel
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11
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de la Mata M, Zamani RR, Martí-Sánchez S, Eickhoff M, Xiong Q, Fontcuberta I Morral A, Caroff P, Arbiol J. The Role of Polarity in Nonplanar Semiconductor Nanostructures. NANO LETTERS 2019; 19:3396-3408. [PMID: 31039314 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b00459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The lack of mirror symmetry in binary semiconductor compounds turns them into polar materials, where two opposite orientations of the same crystallographic direction are possible. Interestingly, their physical properties (e.g., electronic or photonic) and morphological features (e.g., shape, growth direction, and so forth) also strongly depend on the polarity. It has been observed that nanoscale materials tend to grow with a specific polarity, which can eventually be reversed for very specific growth conditions. In addition, polar-directed growth affects the defect density and topology and might induce eventually the formation of undesirable polarity inversion domains in the nanostructure, which in turn will affect the photonic and electronic final device performance. Here, we present a review on the polarity-driven growth mechanism at the nanoscale, combining our latest investigation with an overview of the available literature highlighting suitable future possibilities of polarity engineering of semiconductor nanostructures. The present study has been extended over a wide range of semiconductor compounds, covering the most commonly synthesized III-V (GaN, GaP, GaAs, GaSb, InN, InP, InAs, InSb) and II-VI (ZnO, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe) nanowires and other free-standing nanostructures (tripods, tetrapods, belts, and membranes). This systematic study allowed us to explore the parameters that may induce polarity-dependent and polarity-driven growth mechanisms, as well as the polarity-related consequences on the physical properties of the nanostructures.
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Affiliation(s)
- María de la Mata
- Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2) , CSIC and BIST , Campus UAB, Bellaterra , 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia , Spain
| | - Reza R Zamani
- Interdisciplinary Center for Electron Microscopy, CIME , École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , 1015 Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Sara Martí-Sánchez
- Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2) , CSIC and BIST , Campus UAB, Bellaterra , 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia , Spain
| | - Martin Eickhoff
- Institute of Solid State Physics , University of Bremen , 28359 Bremen , Germany
| | - Qihua Xiong
- School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences , Nanyang Technological University , 637371 Singapore
| | | | - Philippe Caroff
- Microsoft Quantum Lab Delft, Delft University of Technology , 2600 GA Delft , The Netherlands
| | - Jordi Arbiol
- Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2) , CSIC and BIST , Campus UAB, Bellaterra , 08193 Barcelona, Catalonia , Spain
- ICREA , Pg. Lluís Companys 23 , 08010 Barcelona, Catalonia , Spain
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