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Carulla M, Barten R, Baruffaldi F, Bergamaschi A, Borghi G, Boscardin M, Brückner M, Butcher TA, Centis Vignali M, Dinapoli R, Ebner S, Ficorella F, Fröjdh E, Greiffenberg D, Hammad Ali O, Hasanaj S, Heymes J, Hinger V, King T, Kozlowski P, Lopez Cuenca C, Mezza D, Moustakas K, Mozzanica A, Paternoster G, Paton KA, Ronchin S, Ruder C, Schmitt B, Sieberer P, Thattil D, Vogelsang K, Xie X, Zhang J. Quantum Efficiency Measurement and Modeling of Silicon Sensors Optimized for Soft X-ray Detection. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:942. [PMID: 38339659 PMCID: PMC10856868 DOI: 10.3390/s24030942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Hybrid pixel detectors have become indispensable at synchrotron and X-ray free-electron laser facilities thanks to their large dynamic range, high frame rate, low noise, and large area. However, at energies below 3 keV, the detector performance is often limited because of the poor quantum efficiency of the sensor and the difficulty in achieving single-photon resolution due to the low signal-to-noise ratio. In this paper, we address the quantum efficiency of silicon sensors by refining the design of the entrance window, mainly by passivating the silicon surface and optimizing the dopant profile of the n+ region. We present the measurement of the quantum efficiency in the soft X-ray energy range for silicon sensors with several process variations in the fabrication of planar sensors with thin entrance windows. The quantum efficiency for 250 eV photons is increased from almost 0.5% for a standard sensor to up to 62% as a consequence of these developments, comparable to the quantum efficiency of backside-illuminated scientific CMOS sensors. Finally, we discuss the influence of the various process parameters on quantum efficiency and present a strategy for further improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Carulla
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Rebecca Barten
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Filippo Baruffaldi
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Anna Bergamaschi
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Giacomo Borghi
- Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38126 Povo, Italy; (G.B.); (M.B.); (M.C.V.); (F.F.); (O.H.A.); (G.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Maurizio Boscardin
- Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38126 Povo, Italy; (G.B.); (M.B.); (M.C.V.); (F.F.); (O.H.A.); (G.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Martin Brückner
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Tim A. Butcher
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Matteo Centis Vignali
- Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38126 Povo, Italy; (G.B.); (M.B.); (M.C.V.); (F.F.); (O.H.A.); (G.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Roberto Dinapoli
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Simon Ebner
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Francesco Ficorella
- Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38126 Povo, Italy; (G.B.); (M.B.); (M.C.V.); (F.F.); (O.H.A.); (G.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Erik Fröjdh
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Dominic Greiffenberg
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Omar Hammad Ali
- Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38126 Povo, Italy; (G.B.); (M.B.); (M.C.V.); (F.F.); (O.H.A.); (G.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Shqipe Hasanaj
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Julian Heymes
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Viktoria Hinger
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Thomas King
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Pawel Kozlowski
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Carlos Lopez Cuenca
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Davide Mezza
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Konstantinos Moustakas
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Aldo Mozzanica
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Giovanni Paternoster
- Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38126 Povo, Italy; (G.B.); (M.B.); (M.C.V.); (F.F.); (O.H.A.); (G.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Kirsty A. Paton
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Sabina Ronchin
- Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38126 Povo, Italy; (G.B.); (M.B.); (M.C.V.); (F.F.); (O.H.A.); (G.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Christian Ruder
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Bernd Schmitt
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Patrick Sieberer
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Dhanya Thattil
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Konrad Vogelsang
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Xiangyu Xie
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Jiaguo Zhang
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
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Neff A, Niefind F, Abel B, Mannsfeld SCB, Siefermann KR. Imaging Nanoscale Morphology of Semiconducting Polymer Films with Photoemission Electron Microscopy. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2017; 29:1701012. [PMID: 28513882 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201701012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Revised: 03/18/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Photoemission electron microscopy in combination with polarized laser light is presented as a tool permitting direct imaging of polymer-chain orientation and local degree of order in semicrystalline samples of semiconducting polymers, a promising class of materials for future electronics. The key advantages of this imaging tool are its nondestructive and fast measurements, straightforward data analysis, the low complexity of sample preparation, and the possibility of performing measurements on a broad variety of technologically relevant substrates. The high spatial resolution of the microscope provides insights into the nanoscale morphology, which is relevant for the material's performance in electronic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Neff
- Leibniz-Institut für Oberflächenmodifizierung (IOM), Chemical Department, Permoserstraße 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Falk Niefind
- Leibniz-Institut für Oberflächenmodifizierung (IOM), Chemical Department, Permoserstraße 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Bernd Abel
- Leibniz-Institut für Oberflächenmodifizierung (IOM), Chemical Department, Permoserstraße 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stefan C B Mannsfeld
- Technische Universität Dresden, Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (cfaed), Würzburger Str. 46, 01187, Dresden, Germany
| | - Katrin R Siefermann
- Leibniz-Institut für Oberflächenmodifizierung (IOM), Chemical Department, Permoserstraße 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
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3
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Meshot ER, Zwissler DW, Bui N, Kuykendall TR, Wang C, Hexemer A, Wu KJJ, Fornasiero F. Quantifying the Hierarchical Order in Self-Aligned Carbon Nanotubes from Atomic to Micrometer Scale. ACS NANO 2017; 11:5405-5416. [PMID: 28414424 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.6b08042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Fundamental understanding of structure-property relationships in hierarchically organized nanostructures is crucial for the development of new functionality, yet quantifying structure across multiple length scales is challenging. In this work, we used nondestructive X-ray scattering to quantitatively map the multiscale structure of hierarchically self-organized carbon nanotube (CNT) "forests" across 4 orders of magnitude in length scale, from 2.0 Å to 1.5 μm. Fully resolved structural features include the graphitic honeycomb lattice and interlayer walls (atomic), CNT diameter (nano), as well as the greater CNT ensemble (meso) and large corrugations (micro). Correlating orientational order across hierarchical levels revealed a cascading decrease as we probed finer structural feature sizes with enhanced sensitivity to small-scale disorder. Furthermore, we established qualitative relationships for single-, few-, and multiwall CNT forest characteristics, showing that multiscale orientational order is directly correlated with number density spanning 109-1012 cm-2, yet order is inversely proportional to CNT diameter, number of walls, and atomic defects. Lastly, we captured and quantified ultralow-q meridional scattering features and built a phenomenological model of the large-scale CNT forest morphology, which predicted and confirmed that these features arise due to microscale corrugations along the vertical forest direction. Providing detailed structural information at multiple length scales is important for design and synthesis of CNT materials as well as other hierarchically organized nanostructures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric R Meshot
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Darwin W Zwissler
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Ngoc Bui
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | | | | | | | - Kuang Jen J Wu
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Francesco Fornasiero
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94550, United States
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Schaffer CJ, Wang C, Hexemer A, Müller-Buschbaum P. Grazing incidence resonant soft X-ray scattering for analysis of multi-component polymer-fullerene blend thin films. POLYMER 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2016.05.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Ren J, Ocola LE, Divan R, Czaplewski DA, Segal-Peretz T, Xiong S, Kline RJ, Arges CG, Nealey PF. Post-directed-self-assembly membrane fabrication for in situ analysis of block copolymer structures. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2016; 27:435303. [PMID: 27659775 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/27/43/435303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Full characterization of the three-dimensional structures resulting from the directed self-assembly (DSA) of block copolymers (BCP) remains a difficult challenge. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) tomography and resonant soft x-ray scattering have emerged as powerful and complementary methods for through-film characterization; both techniques require samples to be prepared on specialized membrane substrates. Here we report a generalizable process to implement BCP DSA with density multiplication on silicon nitride membranes. A key feature of the process developed here is that it does not introduce any artefacts or damage to the polymer assemblies as DSA is performed prior to back-etched membrane formation. Because most research and applications of BCP lithography are based on silicon substrates, process variations introduced by implementing DSA on a silicon nitride/silicon stack versus silicon were identified and mitigated. Using full-wafers, membranes were fabricated with different sizes and layouts to enable both TEM and x-ray characterization. Finally, both techniques were used to characterize structures resulting from the DSA of lamella-forming BCP with density multiplication.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Ren
- University of Chicago, Institute for Molecular Engineering, 5640 S Ellis Ave ERC 229, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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Majewski PW, Yager KG. Rapid ordering of block copolymer thin films. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2016; 28:403002. [PMID: 27537062 DOI: 10.1088/0953-8984/28/40/403002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Block-copolymers self-assemble into diverse morphologies, where nanoscale order can be finely tuned via block architecture and processing conditions. However, the ultimate usage of these materials in real-world applications may be hampered by the extremely long thermal annealing times-hours or days-required to achieve good order. Here, we provide an overview of the fundamentals of block-copolymer self-assembly kinetics, and review the techniques that have been demonstrated to influence, and enhance, these ordering kinetics. We discuss the inherent tradeoffs between oven annealing, solvent annealing, microwave annealing, zone annealing, and other directed self-assembly methods; including an assessment of spatial and temporal characteristics. We also review both real-space and reciprocal-space analysis techniques for quantifying order in these systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pawel W Majewski
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, USA. Department of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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Pfadler T, Coric M, Palumbiny CM, Jakowetz AC, Strunk KP, Dorman JA, Ehrenreich P, Wang C, Hexemer A, Png RQ, Ho PKH, Müller-Buschbaum P, Weickert J, Schmidt-Mende L. Influence of interfacial area on exciton separation and polaron recombination in nanostructured bilayer all-polymer solar cells. ACS NANO 2014; 8:12397-12409. [PMID: 25412270 DOI: 10.1021/nn5064166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The macroscopic device performance of organic solar cells is governed by interface physics on a nanometer scale. A comb-like bilayer all-polymer morphology featuring a controlled enhancement in donor-acceptor interfacial area is employed as a model system to investigate the fundamental processes of exciton separation and polaron recombination in these devices. The different nanostructures are characterized locally by SEM/AFM, and the buried interdigitating interface of the final device architecture is statistically verified on a large area via advanced grazing incidence X-ray scattering techniques. The results show equally enhanced harvesting of photoexcitons in both donor and acceptor materials directly correlated to the total enhancement of interfacial area. Apart from this beneficial effect, the enhanced interface leads to significantly increased polaron recombination losses both around the open-circuit voltage and maximum power point, which is determined in complement with diode dark current characteristics, impedance spectroscopy, and transient photovoltage measurements. From these findings, it is inferred that a spatially optimized comb-like donor-acceptor nanonetwork alone is not the ideal morphology even though often postulated. Instead, the energetic landscape has to be considered. A perfect morphology for an excitonic solar cell must be spatially and energetically optimized with respect to the donor-acceptor interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Pfadler
- Department of Physics, University of Konstanz , Universitätsstr. 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
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Huang Y, Kramer EJ, Heeger AJ, Bazan GC. Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells: Morphology and Performance Relationships. Chem Rev 2014; 114:7006-43. [DOI: 10.1021/cr400353v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1017] [Impact Index Per Article: 101.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ye Huang
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, ‡Department of Materials, §Department of Chemical Engineering, and ∥Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Edward J. Kramer
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, ‡Department of Materials, §Department of Chemical Engineering, and ∥Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Alan J. Heeger
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, ‡Department of Materials, §Department of Chemical Engineering, and ∥Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Guillermo C. Bazan
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, ‡Department of Materials, §Department of Chemical Engineering, and ∥Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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Ruderer MA, Wang C, Schaible E, Hexemer A, Xu T, Müller-Buschbaum P. Morphology and Optical Properties of P3HT:MEH-CN-PPV Blend Films. Macromolecules 2013. [DOI: 10.1021/ma4006999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthias A. Ruderer
- Lehrstuhl für Funktionelle
Materialien, Physik-Department, Technische Universität München, James-Franck-Strasse 1, 85748 Garching,
Germany
| | - Cheng Wang
- Advanced Light
Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron
Road, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Eric Schaible
- Advanced Light
Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron
Road, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Alexander Hexemer
- Advanced Light
Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron
Road, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Ting Xu
- Department of Materials Science
and Engineering and Department of Chemistry, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720,
United States
| | - Peter Müller-Buschbaum
- Lehrstuhl für Funktionelle
Materialien, Physik-Department, Technische Universität München, James-Franck-Strasse 1, 85748 Garching,
Germany
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Fink J, Schierle E, Weschke E, Geck J. Resonant elastic soft x-ray scattering. REPORTS ON PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. PHYSICAL SOCIETY (GREAT BRITAIN) 2013; 76:056502. [PMID: 23563216 DOI: 10.1088/0034-4885/76/5/056502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Resonant (elastic) soft x-ray scattering (RSXS) offers a unique element, site and valence specific probe to study spatial modulations of charge, spin and orbital degrees of freedom in solids on the nanoscopic length scale. It is not only used to investigate single-crystalline materials. This method also enables one to examine electronic ordering phenomena in thin films and to zoom into electronic properties emerging at buried interfaces in artificial heterostructures. During the last 20 years, this technique, which combines x-ray scattering with x-ray absorption spectroscopy, has developed into a powerful probe to study electronic ordering phenomena in complex materials and furthermore delivers important information on the electronic structure of condensed matter. This review provides an introduction to the technique, covers the progress in experimental equipment, and gives a survey on recent RSXS studies of ordering in correlated electron systems and at interfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Fink
- Leibniz-Institute for Solid State and Materials Research Dresden, PO Box 270116, D-01171 Dresden, Germany.
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Collins BA, Cochran JE, Yan H, Gann E, Hub C, Fink R, Wang C, Schuettfort T, McNeill CR, Chabinyc ML, Ade H. Polarized X-ray scattering reveals non-crystalline orientational ordering in organic films. NATURE MATERIALS 2012; 11:536-43. [PMID: 22504534 DOI: 10.1038/nmat3310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2011] [Accepted: 03/20/2012] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Molecular orientation critically influences the mechanical, chemical, optical and electronic properties of organic materials. So far, molecular-scale ordering in soft matter could be characterized with X-ray or electron microscopy techniques only if the sample exhibited sufficient crystallinity. Here, we show that the resonant scattering of polarized soft X-rays (P-SoXS) by molecular orbitals is not limited by crystallinity and that it can be used to probe molecular orientation down to size scales of 10 nm. We first apply the technique on highly crystalline small-molecule thin films and subsequently use its high sensitivity to probe the impact of liquid-crystalline ordering on charge mobility in polymeric transistors. P-SoXS also reveals scattering anisotropy in amorphous domains of all-polymer organic solar cells where interfacial interactions pattern orientational alignment in the matrix phase, which probably plays an important role in the photophysics. The energy and q-dependence of the scattering anisotropy allows the identification of the composition and the degree of orientational order in the domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Collins
- Department of Physics, NCSU, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-8202, USA
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Gann E, Young AT, Collins BA, Yan H, Nasiatka J, Padmore HA, Ade H, Hexemer A, Wang C. Soft x-ray scattering facility at the Advanced Light Source with real-time data processing and analysis. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2012; 83:045110. [PMID: 22559579 DOI: 10.1063/1.3701831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
We present the development and characterization of a dedicated resonant soft x-ray scattering facility. Capable of operation over a wide energy range, the beamline and endstation are primarily used for scattering from soft matter systems around the carbon K-edge (∼285 eV). We describe the specialized design of the instrument and characteristics of the beamline. Operational characteristics of immediate interest to users such as polarization control, degree of higher harmonic spectral contamination, and detector noise are delineated. Of special interest is the development of a higher harmonic rejection system that improves the spectral purity of the x-ray beam. Special software and a user-friendly interface have been implemented to allow real-time data processing and preliminary data analysis simultaneous with data acquisition.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Gann
- Department of Physics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-8202, USA
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Yan H, Collins BA, Gann E, Wang C, Ade H, McNeill CR. Correlating the efficiency and nanomorphology of polymer blend solar cells utilizing resonant soft X-ray scattering. ACS NANO 2012; 6:677-688. [PMID: 22168639 DOI: 10.1021/nn204150f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Enhanced scattering contrast afforded by resonant soft X-ray scattering (R-SoXS) is used to probe the nanomorphology of all-polymer solar cells based on blends of the donor polymer poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) with either the acceptor polymer poly((9,9-dioctylfluorene)-2,7-diyl-alt-[4,7-bis(3-hexylthien-5-yl)-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole]-2',2"-diyl) (F8TBT) or poly([N,N'-bis(2-octyldodecyl)-11-naphthalene-1,4,5,8-bis(dicarboximide)-2,6-diyl]-alt-5,5'-(2,2'-12-bithiophene)) (P(NDI2OD-T2)). Both P3HT:F8TBT and P3HT:P(NDI2OD-T2) blends processed from chloroform with subsequent annealing exhibit complicated morphologies with a hierarchy of phase separation. A bimodal distribution of domain sizes is observed for P3HT:P(NDI2OD-T2) blends with small domains of size ~5-10 nm that evolve with annealing and larger domains of size ~100 nm that are insensitive to annealing. P3HT:F8TBT blends in contrast show a broader distribution of domain size but with the majority of this blend structured on the 10 nm length scale. For both P3HT:P(NDI2OD-T2) and P3HT:F8TBT blends, an evolution in device performance is observed that is correlated with a coarsening and purification of domains on the 5-10 nm length scale. Grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GI-WAXS) is also employed to probe material crystallinity, revealing P(NDI2OD-T2) crystallites 25-40 nm in thickness that are embedded in the larger domains observed by R-SoXS. A higher degree of P3HT crystallinity is also observed in blends with P(NDI2OD-T2) compared to F8TBT with the propensity of the polymers to crystallize in P3HT:P(NDI2OD-T2) blends hindering the structuring of morphology on the sub-10 nm length scale. This work also underscores the complementarity of R-SoXS and GI-WAXS, with R-SoXS measuring the size of compositionally distinguishable domains and GI-WAXS providing information regarding crystallinity and crystallite thickness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongping Yan
- Department of Physics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-8202, USA
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Wang C, Lee DH, Hexemer A, Kim MI, Zhao W, Hasegawa H, Ade H, Russell TP. Defining the nanostructured morphology of triblock copolymers using resonant soft X-ray scattering. NANO LETTERS 2011; 11:3906-11. [PMID: 21805981 DOI: 10.1021/nl2020526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The morphologies of a poly(1,4-isoprene)-block-polystyrene-block-poly(2-vinyl pyridine) (IS2VP) copolymer were investigated using resonant soft X-ray scattering (RSoXS) together with scanning force microscopy, small-angle X-ray scattering, and electron microscopy. Differences in the nanoscopic morphologies in the bulk and thin film samples were observed arising from the competition between segmental interactions between the blocks and the substrate and the surface energies of each block. Using soft X-rays at selected photon energies to isolate the scattering contribution from different polymer blocks, RSoXS unambiguously defined the complex morphology of the triblock copolymer. In the bulk sample, two nested, hexagonal arrays of P2VP and PI cylindrical microdomains residing in the PS matrix were observed. The cylindrical microdomains of one component were found to be located at the interstitial sites of the hexagonal array of the other component that has the larger d spacing. In solvent-annealed thin films with 40 nm in thickness, a hexagonal array of core-shell microdomains of P2VP cores with PS shells that reside in a PI matrix were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Wang
- Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States.
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Chen W, Xu T, He F, Wang W, Wang C, Strzalka J, Liu Y, Wen J, Miller DJ, Chen J, Hong K, Yu L, Darling SB. Hierarchical nanomorphologies promote exciton dissociation in polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells. NANO LETTERS 2011; 11:3707-13. [PMID: 21823620 DOI: 10.1021/nl201715q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
PTB7 semiconducting copolymer comprising thieno[3,4-b]thiophene and benzodithiophene alternating repeat units set a historic record of solar energy conversion efficiency (7.4%) in polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells. To further improve solar cell performance, a thorough understanding of structure-property relationships associated with PTB7/fullerene and related organic photovoltaic (OPV) devices is crucial. Traditionally, OPV active layers are viewed as an interpenetrating network of pure polymers and fullerenes with discrete interfaces. Here we show that the active layer of PTB7/fullerene OPV devices in fact involves hierarchical nanomorphologies ranging from several nanometers of crystallites to tens of nanometers of nanocrystallite aggregates in PTB7-rich and fullerene-rich domains, themselves hundreds of nanometers in size. These hierarchical nanomorphologies are coupled to significantly enhanced exciton dissociation, which consequently contribute to photocurrent, indicating that the nanostructural characteristics at multiple length scales is one of the key factors determining the performance of PTB7 copolymer, and likely most polymer/fullerene systems, in OPV devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Chen
- Center for Nanoscale Materials, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.
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