1
|
Breslin JW. Lymphatic Clearance and Pump Function. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2023; 13:a041187. [PMID: 35667711 PMCID: PMC9899645 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a041187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Lymphatic vessels have an active role in draining excess interstitial fluid from organs and serving as conduits for immune cell trafficking to lymph nodes. In the central circulation, the force needed to propel blood forward is generated by the heart. In contrast, lymphatic vessels rely on intrinsic vessel contractions in combination with extrinsic forces for lymph propulsion. The intrinsic pumping features phasic contractions generated by lymphatic smooth muscle. Periodic, bicuspid valves composed of endothelial cells prevent backflow of lymph. This work provides a brief overview of lymph transport, including initial lymph formation along with cellular and molecular mechanisms controlling lymphatic vessel pumping.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jerome W Breslin
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Russell PS, Hong J, Trevaskis NL, Windsor JA, Martin ND, Phillips ARJ. Lymphatic Contractile Function: A Comprehensive Review of Drug Effects and Potential Clinical Application. Cardiovasc Res 2021; 118:2437-2457. [PMID: 34415332 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvab279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The lymphatic system and the cardiovascular system work together to maintain body fluid homeostasis. Despite that, the lymphatic system has been relatively neglected as a potential drug target and a source of adverse effects from cardiovascular drugs. Like the heart, the lymphatic vessels undergo phasic contractions to promote lymph flow against a pressure gradient. Dysfunction or failure of the lymphatic pump results in fluid imbalance and tissue oedema. While this can due to drug effects, it is also a feature of breast cancer-associated lymphoedema, chronic venous insufficiency, congestive heart failure and acute systemic inflammation. There are currently no specific drug treatments for lymphatic pump dysfunction in clinical use despite the wealth of data from pre-clinical studies. AIM To identify (1) drugs with direct effects on lymphatic tonic and phasic contractions with potential for clinical application, and (2) drugs in current clinical use that have a positive or negative side effect on lymphatic function. METHODS We comprehensively reviewed all studies that tested the direct effect of a drug on the contractile function of lymphatic vessels. RESULTS Of the 208 drugs identified from 193 studies, about a quarter had only stimulatory effects on lymphatic tone, contraction frequency and/or contraction amplitude. Of FDA-approved drugs, there were 14 that increased lymphatic phasic contractile function. The most frequently used class of drug with inhibitory effects on lymphatic pump function were the calcium channels blockers. CONCLUSION This review highlights the opportunity for specific drug treatments of lymphatic dysfunction in various disease states and for avoiding adverse drug effects on lymphatic contractile function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter S Russell
- Applied Surgery and Metabolism Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Surgical and Translational Research Centre, Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jiwon Hong
- Applied Surgery and Metabolism Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Surgical and Translational Research Centre, Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Natalie L Trevaskis
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - John A Windsor
- Surgical and Translational Research Centre, Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Niels D Martin
- Department of Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Anthony R J Phillips
- Applied Surgery and Metabolism Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Surgical and Translational Research Centre, Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Jo M, Trujillo AN, Yang Y, Breslin JW. Evidence of functional ryanodine receptors in rat mesenteric collecting lymphatic vessels. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2019; 317:H561-H574. [PMID: 31274355 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00564.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
In the current study, the potential contributions of ryanodine receptors (RyRs) to intrinsic pumping and responsiveness to substance P (SP) were investigated in isolated rat mesenteric collecting lymphatic vessels. Responses to SP were characterized in lymphatic vessels in the absence or presence of pretreatment with nifedipine to block L-type Ca2+ channels, caffeine to block normal release and uptake of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, ryanodine to block all RyR isoforms, or dantrolene to more selectively block RyR1 and RyR3. RyR expression and localization in lymphatics was also assessed by quantitative PCR and immunofluorescence confocal microscopy. The results show that SP normally elicits a significant increase in contraction frequency and a decrease in end-diastolic diameter. In the presence of nifedipine, phasic contractions stop, yet subsequent SP treatment still elicits a strong tonic contraction. Caffeine treatment gradually relaxes lymphatics, causing a loss of phasic contractions, and prevents subsequent SP-induced tonic contraction. Ryanodine also gradually diminishes phasic contractions but without causing vessel relaxation and significantly inhibits the SP-induced tonic contraction. Dantrolene treatment did not significantly impair lymphatic contractions nor the response to SP. The mRNA for all RyR isoforms is detectable in isolated lymphatics. RyR2 and RyR3 proteins are found predominantly in the collecting lymphatic smooth muscle layer. Collectively, the data suggest that SP-induced tonic contraction requires both extracellular Ca2+ plus Ca2+ release from internal stores and that RyRs play a role in the normal contractions and responsiveness to SP of rat mesenteric collecting lymphatics.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The mechanisms that govern contractions of lymphatic vessels remain unclear. Tonic contraction of lymphatic vessels caused by substance P was blocked by caffeine, which prevents normal uptake and release of Ca2+ from internal stores, but not nifedipine, which blocks L-type channel-mediated Ca2+ entry. Ryanodine, which also disrupts normal sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release and reuptake, significantly inhibited substance P-induced tonic contraction. Ryanodine receptors 2 and 3 were detected within the smooth muscle layer of collecting lymphatic vessels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michiko Jo
- Department of Kampo Diagnostics, Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, Toyama, Japan.,Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
| | - Andrea N Trujillo
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
| | - Ying Yang
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
| | - Jerome W Breslin
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Hu D, Li L, Li S, Wu M, Ge N, Cui Y, Lian Z, Song J, Chen H. Lymphatic system identification, pathophysiology and therapy in the cardiovascular diseases. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2019; 133:99-111. [PMID: 31181226 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2019.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2019] [Revised: 06/02/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The mammalian circulatory system comprises both the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system. In contrast to the closed, high-pressure and circular blood vascular circulation, the lymphatic system forms an open, low-pressure and unidirectional transit network from the extracellular space to the venous system. It plays a key role in regulating tissue fluid homeostasis, absorption of gastrointestinal lipids, and immune surveillance throughout the body. Despite the critical physiological functions of the lymphatic system, a complete understanding of the lymphatic vessels lags far behind that of the blood vasculatures due to the challenge of their visualization. During the last 20 years, discoveries of underlying genes responsible for lymphatic vessel biology, combined with state-of-the-art lymphatic function imaging and quantification techniques, have established the importance of the lymphatic vasculature in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases including lymphedema, obesity and metabolic diseases, dyslipidemia, hypertension, inflammation, atherosclerosis and myocardial infraction. In this review, we highlight the most recent advances in the field of lymphatic vessel biology, with an emphasis on the new identification techniques of lymphatic system, pathophysiological mechanisms of atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction, and new therapeutic perspectives of lymphangiogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dan Hu
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Early Prediction and Intervention of Acute Myocardial Infarction, Center for Cardiovascular Translational Research, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Long Li
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Early Prediction and Intervention of Acute Myocardial Infarction, Center for Cardiovascular Translational Research, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Sufang Li
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Early Prediction and Intervention of Acute Myocardial Infarction, Center for Cardiovascular Translational Research, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Manyan Wu
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Early Prediction and Intervention of Acute Myocardial Infarction, Center for Cardiovascular Translational Research, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Nana Ge
- Department of Geriatrics, Beijing Renhe Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yuxia Cui
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Early Prediction and Intervention of Acute Myocardial Infarction, Center for Cardiovascular Translational Research, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Zheng Lian
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Early Prediction and Intervention of Acute Myocardial Infarction, Center for Cardiovascular Translational Research, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Junxian Song
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Early Prediction and Intervention of Acute Myocardial Infarction, Center for Cardiovascular Translational Research, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Hong Chen
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Early Prediction and Intervention of Acute Myocardial Infarction, Center for Cardiovascular Translational Research, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Breslin JW, Yang Y, Scallan JP, Sweat RS, Adderley SP, Murfee WL. Lymphatic Vessel Network Structure and Physiology. Compr Physiol 2018; 9:207-299. [PMID: 30549020 PMCID: PMC6459625 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c180015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The lymphatic system is comprised of a network of vessels interrelated with lymphoid tissue, which has the holistic function to maintain the local physiologic environment for every cell in all tissues of the body. The lymphatic system maintains extracellular fluid homeostasis favorable for optimal tissue function, removing substances that arise due to metabolism or cell death, and optimizing immunity against bacteria, viruses, parasites, and other antigens. This article provides a comprehensive review of important findings over the past century along with recent advances in the understanding of the anatomy and physiology of lymphatic vessels, including tissue/organ specificity, development, mechanisms of lymph formation and transport, lymphangiogenesis, and the roles of lymphatics in disease. © 2019 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 9:207-299, 2019.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jerome W. Breslin
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - Ying Yang
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - Joshua P. Scallan
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - Richard S. Sweat
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA
| | - Shaquria P. Adderley
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - W. Lee Murfee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Telinius N, Majgaard J, Mohanakumar S, Pahle E, Nielsen J, Hjortdal V, Aalkjær C, Boedtkjer DB. Spontaneous and Evoked Contractility of Human Intestinal Lymphatic Vessels. Lymphat Res Biol 2017; 15:17-22. [DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2016.0039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Niklas Telinius
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Jens Majgaard
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Sheyanth Mohanakumar
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Einar Pahle
- Department of Surgery, Viborg Hospital, Viborg, Denmark
| | - Jørn Nielsen
- Department of Surgery, Viborg Hospital, Viborg, Denmark
| | - Vibeke Hjortdal
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Donna Briggs Boedtkjer
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Scallan JP, Zawieja SD, Castorena-Gonzalez JA, Davis MJ. Lymphatic pumping: mechanics, mechanisms and malfunction. J Physiol 2016; 594:5749-5768. [PMID: 27219461 PMCID: PMC5063934 DOI: 10.1113/jp272088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 229] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A combination of extrinsic (passive) and intrinsic (active) forces move lymph against a hydrostatic pressure gradient in most regions of the body. The effectiveness of the lymph pump system impacts not only interstitial fluid balance but other aspects of overall homeostasis. This review focuses on the mechanisms that regulate the intrinsic, active contractions of collecting lymphatic vessels in relation to their ability to actively transport lymph. Lymph propulsion requires not only robust contractions of lymphatic muscle cells, but contraction waves that are synchronized over the length of a lymphangion as well as properly functioning intraluminal valves. Normal lymphatic pump function is determined by the intrinsic properties of lymphatic muscle and the regulation of pumping by lymphatic preload, afterload, spontaneous contraction rate, contractility and neural influences. Lymphatic contractile dysfunction, barrier dysfunction and valve defects are common themes among pathologies that directly involve the lymphatic system, such as inherited and acquired forms of lymphoedema, and pathologies that indirectly involve the lymphatic system, such as inflammation, obesity and metabolic syndrome, and inflammatory bowel disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua P Scallan
- Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Scott D Zawieja
- Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | | | - Michael J Davis
- Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Chakraborty S, Zawieja SD, Wang W, Lee Y, Wang YJ, von der Weid PY, Zawieja DC, Muthuchamy M. Lipopolysaccharide modulates neutrophil recruitment and macrophage polarization on lymphatic vessels and impairs lymphatic function in rat mesentery. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2015; 309:H2042-57. [PMID: 26453331 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00467.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Impairment of the lymphatic system is apparent in multiple inflammatory pathologies connected to elevated endotoxins such as LPS. However, the direct mechanisms by which LPS influences the lymphatic contractility are not well understood. We hypothesized that a dynamic modulation of innate immune cell populations in mesentery under inflammatory conditions perturbs tissue cytokine/chemokine homeostasis and subsequently influences lymphatic function. We used rats that were intraperitoneally injected with LPS (10 mg/kg) to determine the changes in the profiles of innate immune cells in the mesentery and in the stretch-mediated contractile responses of isolated lymphatic preparations. Results demonstrated a reduction in the phasic contractile activity of mesenteric lymphatic vessels from LPS-injected rats and a severe impairment of lymphatic pump function and flow. There was a significant reduction in the number of neutrophils and an increase in monocytes/macrophages present on the lymphatic vessels and in the clear mesentery of the LPS group. This population of monocytes and macrophages established a robust M2 phenotype, with the majority showing high expression of CD163 and CD206. Several cytokines and chemoattractants for neutrophils and macrophages were significantly changed in the mesentery of LPS-injected rats. Treatment of lymphatic muscle cells (LMCs) with LPS showed significant changes in the expression of adhesion molecules, VCAM1, ICAM1, CXCR2, and galectin-9. LPS-TLR4-mediated regulation of pAKT, pERK pI-κB, and pMLC20 in LMCs promoted both contractile and inflammatory pathways. Thus, our data provide the first evidence connecting the dynamic changes in innate immune cells on or near the lymphatics and complex cytokine milieu during inflammation with lymphatic dysfunction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sanjukta Chakraborty
- Department of Medical Physiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Division of Lymphatic Biology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, College Station, Texas; and
| | - Scott D Zawieja
- Department of Medical Physiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Division of Lymphatic Biology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, College Station, Texas; and
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Medical Physiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Division of Lymphatic Biology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, College Station, Texas; and
| | - Yang Lee
- Department of Medical Physiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Division of Lymphatic Biology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, College Station, Texas; and
| | - Yuan J Wang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Inflammation Research Network, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Pierre-Yves von der Weid
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Inflammation Research Network, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - David C Zawieja
- Department of Medical Physiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Division of Lymphatic Biology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, College Station, Texas; and
| | - Mariappan Muthuchamy
- Department of Medical Physiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Division of Lymphatic Biology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, College Station, Texas; and
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Chakraborty S, Davis MJ, Muthuchamy M. Emerging trends in the pathophysiology of lymphatic contractile function. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2015; 38:55-66. [PMID: 25617600 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2015.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Revised: 01/12/2015] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Lymphatic contractile dysfunction is central to a number of pathologies that affect millions of people worldwide. Due to its critical role in the process of inflammation, a dysfunctional lymphatic system also compromises the immune response, further exacerbating a number of inflammation related diseases. Despite the critical physiological functions accomplished by the transport of lymph, a complete understanding of the contractile machinery of the lymphatic system lags far behind that of the blood vasculature. However, there has been a surge of recent research focusing on different mechanisms that underlie both physiological and pathophysiological aspects of lymphatic contractile function. This review summarizes those emerging paradigms that shed some novel insights into the contractile physiology of the lymphatics in normal as well as different disease states. In addition, this review emphasizes the recent progress made in our understanding of various contractile parameters and regulatory elements that contribute to the normal functioning of the lymphatics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sanjukta Chakraborty
- Department of Medical Physiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Division of Lymphatic Biology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, United States
| | - Michael J Davis
- Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri School of Medicine, United States.
| | - Mariappan Muthuchamy
- Department of Medical Physiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Division of Lymphatic Biology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Quick CM, Criscione JC, Kotiya A, Dongaonkar RM, Hardy J, Wilson E, Gashev AA, Laine GA, Stewart RH. Functional adaptation of bovine mesenteric lymphatic vessels to mesenteric venous hypertension. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2014; 306:R901-7. [PMID: 24671245 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00185.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Lymph flow is the primary mechanism for returning interstitial fluid to the blood circulation. Currently, the adaptive response of lymphatic vessels to mesenteric venous hypertension is not known. This study sought to determine the functional responses of postnodal mesenteric lymphatic vessels. We surgically occluded bovine mesenteric veins to create mesenteric venous hypertension to elevate mesenteric lymph flow. Three days after surgery, postnodal mesenteric lymphatic vessels from mesenteric venous hypertension (MVH; n = 7) and sham surgery (Sham; n = 6) group animals were evaluated and compared. Contraction frequency (MVH: 2.98 ± 0.75 min(-1); Sham: 5.42 ± 0.81 min(-1)) and fractional pump flow (MVH: 1.14 ± 0.30 min(-1); Sham: 2.39 ± 0.32 min(-1)) were significantly lower in the venous occlusion group. These results indicate that postnodal mesenteric lymphatic vessels adapt to mesenteric venous hypertension by reducing intrinsic contractile activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher M Quick
- Michael E. DeBakey Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas;
| | - John C Criscione
- Michael E. DeBakey Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
| | - Akhilesh Kotiya
- Department Biomedical Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | | | - Joanne Hardy
- Michael E. DeBakey Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas; Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas; and
| | - Emily Wilson
- Michael E. DeBakey Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas; Systems Biology and Translational Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Temple, Texas
| | - Anatoliy A Gashev
- Michael E. DeBakey Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas; Systems Biology and Translational Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Temple, Texas
| | - Glen A Laine
- Michael E. DeBakey Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
| | - Randolph H Stewart
- Michael E. DeBakey Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Chakraborty S, Gurusamy M, Zawieja DC, Muthuchamy M. Lymphatic filariasis: perspectives on lymphatic remodeling and contractile dysfunction in filarial disease pathogenesis. Microcirculation 2014; 20:349-64. [PMID: 23237232 DOI: 10.1111/micc.12031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2012] [Accepted: 12/07/2012] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Lymphatic filariasis, one of the most debilitating diseases associated with the lymphatic system, affects over a hundred million people worldwide and manifests itself in a variety of severe clinical pathologies. The filarial parasites specifically target the lymphatics and impair lymph flow, which is critical for the normal functions of the lymphatic system in maintenance of body fluid balance and physiological interstitial fluid transport. The resultant contractile dysfunction of the lymphatics causes fluid accumulation and lymphedema, one of the major pathologies associated with filarial infection. In this review, we take a closer look at the contractile mechanisms of the lymphatics, its altered functions, and remodeling during an inflammatory state and how it relates to the severe pathogenesis underlying a filarial infection. We further elaborate on the complex host-parasite interactions, and molecular mechanisms contributing to the disease pathogenesis. The overall emphasis is on elucidating some of the emerging concepts and new directions that aim to harness the process of lymphangiogenesis or enhance contractility in a dysfunctional lymphatics, thereby restoring the fluid imbalance and mitigating the pathological conditions of lymphatic filariasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sanjukta Chakraborty
- Department of Systems Biology and Translational Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, College Station/Temple, TX 77843, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Dougherty PJ, Nepiyushchikh ZV, Chakraborty S, Wang W, Davis MJ, Zawieja DC, Muthuchamy M. PKC activation increases Ca²⁺ sensitivity of permeabilized lymphatic muscle via myosin light chain 20 phosphorylation-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2014; 306:H674-83. [PMID: 24414065 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00732.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The contractile activity of muscle cells lining the walls of collecting lymphatics is responsible for generating and regulating flow within the lymphatic system. Activation of PKC signaling contributes to the regulation of smooth muscle contraction by enhancing sensitivity of the contractile apparatus to Ca(2+). It is currently unknown whether PKC signaling contributes to the regulation of lymphatic muscle contraction. We hypothesized that the activation of PKC signaling would increase the sensitivity of the lymphatic myofilament to Ca(2+). To test this hypothesis, we determined the effects of PKC activation with phorbol esters [PMA or phorbol dibutyrate (PDBu)] on the contractile behavior of α-toxin-permeabilized rat mesenteric and cervical lymphatics or the thoracic duct. The addition of PMA or PDBu induced a significant increase in the contractile force of submaximally activated α-toxin-permeabilized lymphatic muscle independent of a change in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration, and the Ca(2+)-force relationship of lymphatic muscle was significantly left shifted, indicating greater myofilament Ca(2+) sensitivity. Phorbol esters increased the maximal rate of force development, whereas the rate of relaxation was reduced. Western blot and immunohistochemistry data indicated that the initial rapid increase in tension development after stimulation by PDBu was associated with myosin light chain (MLC)20 phosphorylation; however, the later, steady-state Ca(2+) sensitization of permeabilized lymphatic muscle was not associated with increased phosphorylation of MLC20 at Ser(19), 17-kDa C-kinase-potentiated protein phosphatase-1 inhibitor at Thr(38), or caldesmon at Ser(789). Thus, these data indicate that PKC-dependent Ca(2+) sensitization of lymphatic muscle may involve MLC20 phosphorylation-dependent and -independent mechanism(s).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Dougherty
- Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, Texas; and
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Role of RhoA in Regulating the Pump Function of Isolated Lymphatics From Hemorrhagic Shock Rats. Shock 2013; 40:49-58. [DOI: 10.1097/shk.0b013e31829635cf] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
|
14
|
Mignini F, Sabbatini M, Coppola L, Cavallotti C. Analysis of nerve supply pattern in human lymphatic vessels of young and old men. Lymphat Res Biol 2013; 10:189-97. [PMID: 23240957 DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2012.0013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The present work deals with innervation patterns along collector lymphatic vessels from cervical, mesenteric, and femoral regions, and lymph capillaries in young and elderly subjects. METHODS AND RESULTS Morphological and morphometric analysis of nerve fibers along lymph vessels was performed by immunohistochemistry for PGP 9.5, NPY, TH, ChAT, VIP, SP, and dopamine. Nerves containing NPY and TH were frequent, whereas immunoreactivity for ChAT and VIP were few. SP-positive fibers were widely distributed in the medial and endothelial layers. Dopamine neurotransmitters were observed in a few short nerve fibers. A more diffuse presence of nerve fibers in mesenteric and femoral lymph vessels, compared to cervical ones, was detected. In lymph capillary vessels, a few nerve fibers positive for neuropeptides and neurotransmitters were detected, whereas no dopamine and VIP immunoreactive fibers were detected. A wide reduction of all specific nerve fibers analyzed was detected in lymph vessels from elderly subjects. CONCLUSIONS The presence on lymph vessels of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve systems can be declared. The differences observed in lymphatic vessel innervation patterns may note the involvement in lymph flow regulation, calling attention in aging, when nerve fibers reduction may cause functional default of lymph vessels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F Mignini
- Anatomia Umana, Scuola di Scienza del Farmaco e dei Prodotti della Salute, Università di Camerino, Italy
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Mignini F, Sabbatini M, Cavallotti C, Cavallotti C. Analysis of Nerve Supply Pattern in Thoracic Duct in Young and Elderly Men. Lymphat Res Biol 2012; 10:46-52. [DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2011.0014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Fiorenzo Mignini
- Anatomia Umana, Scuola di Scienza del Farmaco e dei Prodotti della Salute, Università di Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Maurizio Sabbatini
- Anatomia Umana, Dip. Scienze della Salute, Università del Piemonte Orientale “A. Avogadro” Alessandria, Novara, Vercelli, Italy
| | - Chiara Cavallotti
- Dip. Scienze Chirurgiche e Cardiovascolari, Università La Sapienza, Roma, Italy
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Neurovascular and neuroimmune aspects in the pathophysiology of rosacea. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc 2012; 15:53-62. [PMID: 22076328 DOI: 10.1038/jidsymp.2011.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Rosacea is a common skin disease with a high impact on quality of life. Characterized by erythema, edema, burning pain, immune infiltration, and facial skin fibrosis, rosacea has all the characteristics of neurogenic inflammation, a condition induced by sensory nerves via antidromically released neuromediators. To investigate the hypothesis of a central role of neural interactions in the pathophysiology, we analyzed molecular and morphological characteristics in the different subtypes of rosacea by immunohistochemistry, double immunofluorescence, morphometry, real-time PCR, and gene array analysis, and compared the findings with those for lupus erythematosus or healthy skin. Our results showed significantly dilated blood and lymphatic vessels. Signs of angiogenesis were only evident in phymatous rosacea. The number of mast cells and fibroblasts was increased in rosacea, already in subtypes in which fibrosis is not clinically apparent, indicating early activation. Sensory nerves were closely associated with blood vessels and mast cells, and were increased in erythematous rosacea. Gene array studies and qRT-PCR confirmed upregulation of genes involved in vasoregulation and neurogenic inflammation. Thus, dysregulation of mediators and receptors implicated in neurovascular and neuroimmune communication may be crucial at early stages of rosacea. Drugs that function on neurovascular and/or neuroimmune communication may be beneficial for the treatment of rosacea.
Collapse
|
17
|
Chakraborty S, Nepiyushchikh Z, Davis MJ, Zawieja DC, Muthuchamy M. Substance P activates both contractile and inflammatory pathways in lymphatics through the neurokinin receptors NK1R and NK3R. Microcirculation 2011; 18:24-35. [PMID: 21166923 DOI: 10.1111/j.1549-8719.2010.00064.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to elucidate the molecular signaling mechanisms by which substance P (SP) modulates lymphatic muscle contraction and to determine whether SP stimulates both contractile as well as inflammatory pathways in the lymphatics. METHODS A rat mesenteric lymphatic muscle cell culture model (RMLMCs) and known specific pharmacological inhibitors were utilized to delineate SP-mediated signaling pathways in lymphatics. RESULTS We detected expression of neurokinin receptor 1 (NK1R) and neurokinin receptor 3 (NK3R) in RMLMCs. SP stimulation increased phosphorylation of myosin light chain 20 (MLC₂₀) as well as p38 mitogen associated protein kinase (p38-MAPK) and extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK1/2) indicating activation of both a contractile and a pro-inflammatory MAPK pathway. Pharmacological inhibition of both NK1R and NK3R significantly affected the downstream SP signaling. We further examined whether there was any crosstalk between the two pathways upon SP stimulation. Inhibition of ERK1/2 decreased levels of p-MLC₂₀ after SP activation, in a PKC dependent manner, indicating a potential crosstalk between these two pathways. CONCLUSIONS These data provide the first evidence that SP-mediated crosstalk between pro-inflammatory and contractile signaling mechanisms exists in the lymphatic system and may be an important bridge between lymphatic function modulation and inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sanjukta Chakraborty
- Division of Lymphatic Biology, Department of Systems Biology and Translational Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Souza-Smith FM, Kurtz KM, Molina PE, Breslin JW. Adaptation of mesenteric collecting lymphatic pump function following acute alcohol intoxication. Microcirculation 2011; 17:514-24. [PMID: 21040117 DOI: 10.1111/j.1549-8719.2010.00050.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Acute alcohol intoxication increases intestinal lymph flow by unknown mechanisms, potentially impacting mucosal immunity. We tested the hypothesis that enhanced intrinsic pump function of mesenteric lymphatics contributes to increased intestinal lymph flow during alcohol intoxication. METHODS Acute alcohol intoxication was produced by intragastric administration of 30% alcohol to conscious, unrestrained rats through surgically implanted catheters. Time-matched controls received either no bolus, vehicle, or isocaloric dextrose. Thirty minutes after alcohol administration, rats were anesthetized and mesenteric collecting lymphatics were isolated and cannulated to study intrinsic pumping parameters. In separate experiments, mesenteric lymphatics were isolated to examine direct effects of alcohol on intrinsic pump activity. RESULTS Lymphatics isolated from alcohol-intoxicated animals displayed significantly decreased CF compared to the dextrose group, elevated SVI versus all other groups, and decreased myogenic responsiveness compared to sham. Elevating pressure from 2 to 4 cm H₂O increased the volume flow index 2.4-fold in the alcohol group versus 1.4-fold for shams. Isolated lymphatics exposed to 20 mM alcohol had reduced myogenic tone, without changes in CF or SVI. CONCLUSIONS Alcohol intoxication enhances intrinsic pumping by mesenteric collecting lymphatics. Alcohol directly decreases lymphatic myogenic tone, but effects on phasic contractions occur by an unidentified mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Flavia M Souza-Smith
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Gashev AA, Nagai T, Bridenbaugh EA. Indocyanine green and lymphatic imaging: current problems. Lymphat Res Biol 2011; 8:127-30. [PMID: 20583875 DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2010.0005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging using indocyanine green (ICG) has recently been presented as a comparatively easy and informative technique to image lymphatic channels in vivo. However, no data or references have been provided concerning the impact of ICG application on normal lymphatic contractility and lymph transport. Thus, the imaging agent and/or the method of administration may introduce a significant artifact. METHODS AND RESULTS Standard pharmacological tests were performed to investigate the influence of ICG on the spontaneous contractility of isolated, cannulated, and pressurized rat mesenteric lymphatic vessels. The data demonstrate that non-irradiated ICG dramatically and dynamically influences the contractility of rat lymphatic vessels in both a dose- and diluent-dependent manner with low ICG concentrations principally altering contractile frequency and higher ICG concentrations completely blocking lymphatic contractility. CONCLUSIONS Currently, both researchers and doctors should exercise caution in extrapolating the data obtained with ICG imaging to normal lymphatic function regardless of whether it was obtained in mice, pigs, or humans. Careful and extended pharmacological tests must be performed to evaluate the mechanism of action of ICG on the contractility and physiology of lymphatic vessels with consideration of dose, diluent, and duration of irradiation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anatoliy A Gashev
- Department of Systems Biology and Translational Medicine, College of Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Division of Lymphatic Biology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Temple, Texas 76504, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
|
21
|
Chakraborty S, Zawieja S, Wang W, Zawieja DC, Muthuchamy M. Lymphatic system: a vital link between metabolic syndrome and inflammation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2010; 1207 Suppl 1:E94-102. [PMID: 20961312 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05752.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Metabolic syndrome is defined by a cluster of different metabolic risk factors that include overall and central obesity, elevated fasting glucose levels, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and intimal atherogenesis. Metabolic syndrome leads to increased risk for the development of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease (e.g., heart disease and stroke). The exacerbated progression of metabolic syndrome to cardiovascular disease has lead to intense study of the physiological ramifications of metabolic syndrome on the blood vasculature. These studies have particularly focused on the signaling and architectural alterations that manifest in hypertension and atherosclerosis. However, despite the overlap of metabolic syndrome pathology with lymphatic function, tangent effects on the lymphatic system have not been extensively documented. In this review, we discuss the current status of metabolic syndrome and provide evidence for, and the remaining challenges in studying, the connections among the lymphatic system, lipid transport, obesity, insulin resistance, and general inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sanjukta Chakraborty
- Division of Lymphatic Biology, Department of Systems Biology and Translational Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
von der Weid PY, Muthuchamy M. Regulatory mechanisms in lymphatic vessel contraction under normal and inflammatory conditions. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 2010; 17:263-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pathophys.2009.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2009] [Revised: 06/10/2009] [Accepted: 10/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
|
23
|
Gashev AA, Zawieja DC. Hydrodynamic regulation of lymphatic transport and the impact of aging. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 2010; 17:277-87. [PMID: 20226639 PMCID: PMC5507682 DOI: 10.1016/j.pathophys.2009.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2009] [Revised: 09/17/2009] [Accepted: 09/23/2009] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To accomplish its normal roles in body fluid regulation/macromolecular homeostasis, immune function, and lipid absorption; the lymphatic system must transport lymph from the interstitial spaces, into and through the lymphatics, through the lymphatic compartment of the nodes, back into the nodal efferent lymphatics and eventually empty into the great veins. The usual net pressure gradients along this path do not normally favor the passive movement of lymph. Thus, lymph transport requires the input of energy to the lymph to propel it along this path. To do this, the lymphatic system uses a series of pumps to generate lymph flow. Thus to regulate lymph transport, both lymphatic pumping and resistance must be controlled. This review focuses on the regulation of the intrinsic lymph pump by hydrodynamic factors and how these regulatory processes are altered with age. Intrinsic lymph pumping is generated via the rapid/phasic contractions of lymphatic muscle, which are modulated by local physical factors (pressure/stretch and flow/shear). Increased lymph pressure/stretch will generally activate the intrinsic lymph pump up to a point, beyond which the lymph pump will begin to fail. The effect of increased lymph flow/shear is somewhat more complex, in that it can either activate or inhibit the intrinsic lymph pump, depending on the pattern and magnitude of the flow. The pattern and strength of the hydrodynamic regulation of the lymph transport is different in various parts of the lymphatic tree under normal conditions, depending upon the local hydrodynamic conditions. In addition, various pathophysiological processes can affect lymph transport. We have begun to evaluate the influence of the aging process on lymphatic transport characteristics in the rat thoracic duct. The pressure/stretch-dependent activation of intrinsic pumping is significantly impaired in aged rat thoracic duct (TD) and the flow/shear-dependent regulatory mechanisms are essentially completely lacking. The loss of shear-dependent modulation of lymphatic transport appears to be related to a loss of normal eNOS expression and a large rise in iNOS expression in these vessels. Therefore, aging of the lymph transport system significantly impairs its ability to transport lymph. We believe this will alter normal fluid balance as well as negatively impact immune function in the aged animals. Further studies are needed to detail the mechanisms that control and alter lymphatic transport during normal and aged conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anatoliy A. Gashev
- Department of Systems Biology and Translational Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Institute Division of Lymphatic Biology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, 702 SW H.K. Dodgen Loop, Temple, TX 76504, USA
| | - David C. Zawieja
- Department of Systems Biology and Translational Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Institute Division of Lymphatic Biology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, 702 SW H.K. Dodgen Loop, Temple, TX 76504, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Scallan J, Huxley VH, Korthuis RJ. Capillary Fluid Exchange: Regulation, Functions, and Pathology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.4199/c00006ed1v01y201002isp003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
|
25
|
Wang W, Nepiyushchikh Z, Zawieja DC, Chakraborty S, Zawieja SD, Gashev AA, Davis MJ, Muthuchamy M. Inhibition of myosin light chain phosphorylation decreases rat mesenteric lymphatic contractile activity. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2009; 297:H726-34. [PMID: 19525378 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00312.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Muscular lymphatics use both phasic and tonic contractions to transport lymph for conducting their vital functions. The molecular mechanisms regulating lymphatic muscle contractions are not well understood. Based on the well-established finding that the phosphorylation of myosin light chain 20 (MLC(20)) plays an essential role in blood vessel smooth muscle contraction, we investigated if phosphorylated MLC(20) (pMLC(20)) would modulate the tonic and/or phasic contractions of lymphatic muscle. The effects of ML-7, a MLC kinase inhibitor (1-10 microM), were tested on the contractile parameters of isolated and cannulated rat mesenteric lymphatics during their responses to the known modulators, pressure (1-5 cm H(2)O) and substance P (SP; 10(-7) M). Immunohistochemical and Western blot analyses of pMLC(20) were also performed on isolated lymphatics. The results showed that 1) increasing pressure decreased both the lymphatic tonic contraction strength and pMLC(20)-to-MLC(20) ratio; 2) SP increased both the tonic contraction strength and phosphorylation of MLC(20); 3) ML-7 decreased both the lymphatic tonic contraction strength and pMLC(20)-to-MLC(20) ratio; and 4) the increase in lymphatic phasic contraction frequency in response to increasing pressure was diminished by ML-7; however, the phasic contraction amplitude was not significantly altered by ML-7 either in the absence or presence of SP. These data provide the first evidence that tonic contraction strength and phasic contraction amplitude of the lymphatics can be differentially regulated, whereby the increase in MLC(20) phosphorylation produces an activation in the tonic contraction without significant changes in the phasic contraction amplitude. Thus, tonic contraction of rat mesenteric lymphatics appears to be MLC kinase dependent.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Department of Systems Biology and Translational Medicine, Division of Lymphatic Biology, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, College Station/Temple, Texas 77843-1114, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Abstract
The lymphatic system has important roles in body fluid regulation, macromolecular homeostasis, lipid absorption, and immune function. To accomplish these roles, lymphatics must move fluid and its other contents (macromolecules, lipids/chylomicra, immune cells) from the interstitium through the lymphatics, across the nodes, and into the great veins. Thus, the principal task of the lymphatic vascular system is transport. The body must impart energy to the lymph via pumping mechanisms to propel it along the lymphatic network and use pumps and valves to generate lymph flow and prevent its backflow. The lymphatic system utilizes both extrinsic pumps, which rely on the cyclical compression and expansion of lymphatics by surrounding tissue forces, and intrinsic pumps, which rely on the intrinsic rapid/phasic contractions of lymphatic muscle. The intrinsic lymph pump function can be modulated by neural, humoral, and physical factors. Generally, increased lymph pressure/stretch of the muscular lymphatics activates the intrinsic lymph pump, while increased lymph flow/shear in the muscular lymphatics can either activate or inhibit the intrinsic lymph pump depending on the pattern and magnitude of the flow. To regulate lymph transport, lymphatic pumping and resistance must be controlled. A better understanding of these mechanisms could provide the basis for the development of better diagnostic and treatment modalities for lymphatic dysfunction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David C Zawieja
- Department of Systems Biology and Translational Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Institute Division of Lymphatic Biology, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, Temple, Texas 77843-1114, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Davis MJ, Davis AM, Ku CW, Gashev AA. Myogenic constriction and dilation of isolated lymphatic vessels. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2008; 296:H293-302. [PMID: 19028793 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.01040.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We tested the hypothesis that lymphatics would exhibit myogenic constrictions and dilations to intraluminal pressure changes. Collecting lymphatic vessels were isolated from rat mesentery, cannulated, and pressurized for in vitro study. The lymphatic diameter responses to controlled intraluminal pressure steps of different magnitudes were tested in the absence and presence of the inflammatory mediator substance P, which is known to enhance lymphatic contractility. Myogenic constriction, defined as a time-dependent decrease in end-diastolic diameter over a 1- to 2-min period following pressure elevation (after initial distension), was observed in the majority of rat mesenteric lymphatic vessels in vitro and occurred over a relatively wide pressure range (1-15 cmH2O). Myogenic dilation, a time-dependent rise in end-diastolic diameter following pressure reduction, was observed in over half the vessels equilibrated at a low baseline pressure. Myogenic constrictions were independent of the cardiac-like and time-dependent compensatory decline in end-systolic diameter and increase in amplitude observed in almost all vessels following pressure elevation. Substance P increased the percentage of vessels exhibiting myogenic constriction, the magnitude and rate of constriction, and the pressure range over which constriction occurred. Our results demonstrate that myogenic responses occur in collecting lymphatic vessels and suggest that the response may aid in preventing vessel overdistension during inflammation/edema.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Davis
- Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO 65212, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Muthuchamy M, Zawieja D. Molecular regulation of lymphatic contractility. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1131:89-99. [PMID: 18519962 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1413.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The lymphatic system plays critical roles in body fluid and macromolecular homeostasis, lipid absorption, immune function, and metastasis. To accomplish these tasks, the lymphatics must move lymph and its contents from the interstitial space through the lymph vessels and nodes and into the great veins. Contrary to popular belief, lymph does not passively "drain" down this pathway, because the net pressure gradients oppose flow. Instead, the lymphatics must act as both the conduits that direct and regulate lymph flow and the pumps that generate the lymph flow. Thus, to regulate lymph transport and function, both lymphatic pumping and flow resistance must be controlled. Both of these processes occur via regulation of lymphatic muscle contractions, which are classically thought to occur via the interaction of cell calcium with regulatory and contractile proteins. However, our knowledge of this regulation of lymphatic contractile function is far from complete. In this chapter we review our understanding of the important molecular mechanisms, the calcium regulation, and the contractile/regulatory proteins that control lymphatic contractions. A better understanding of these mechanisms could provide the basis for the development of better diagnostic and treatment modalities for lymphatic dysfunction. While progress has been made in our understanding of the molecular biology of lymphangiogenesis as a result of the development of potential lymphangiogenic therapeutic targets, there are currently no therapeutic agents that specifically modulate lymphatic pump function and lymph flow via lymphatic muscle. However, their development will not be possible until the molecular basis of lymphatic contractility is more fully understood.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mariappan Muthuchamy
- Department of Systems Biology and Translational Medicine, College of Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Institute Division of Lymphatic Biology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX 77843-1114, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Davis MJ, Lane MM, Davis AM, Durtschi D, Zawieja DC, Muthuchamy M, Gashev AA. Modulation of lymphatic muscle contractility by the neuropeptide substance P. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2008; 295:H587-97. [PMID: 18539752 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.01029.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Substance P (SP) is a neuropeptide associated with sensory innervation of lymphoid tissue and a suspected modulator of lymphatic function in inflammation. Only a few studies have examined the effects of SP on lymphatic contraction, and it is not clear to what extent SP acts directly on the lymphatic muscle and/or endothelium or indirectly through changes in intraluminal filling pressure secondary to increases in capillary permeability/filtration. We tested the effects of SP on the spontaneous contractions of rat isolated mesenteric lymphatic vessels under isometric and isobaric conditions, hypothesizing that low concentrations would stimulate lymphatic pumping by enhancing lymphatic muscle contraction in a manner complementary to the effect of increased preload. Under isometric conditions, SP (10 nM) dramatically enhanced lymphatic chronotropy and inotropy. Unlike guinea pig lymphatics, SP actions were not blocked by cyclooxygenase or PLA(2) inhibition. In the absence of SP, ramp increases in isometric preload resulted in x approximately 1.6 increases in contraction amplitude (Amp) and x approximately 1.7 increases in frequency (Freq). SP increased Freq by x approximately 2.4, Amp by x approximately 1.9, and the Amp-Freq product (AFP) by x approximately 3.5. Under isobaric conditions, the pressure elevation from 0.5 to 10 cmH(2)O in the absence of SP decreased Amp by x approximately 0.6 and increased Freq by x approximately 1.8. SP caused a modest increase in Amp, a robust increase in Freq at all pressures, and shifted the AFP-pressure relationship upward and leftward. Therefore, SP has substantial positive inotropic and chronotropic effects on rat lymphatic muscle, improving pump efficiency independent of the effects of preload and broadening of the working range of the lymphatic pump.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Davis
- Dept. of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, Univ. of Missouri School of Medicine, 1 Hospital Dr., Rm. M451, Columbia, MO 65212, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Dougherty PJ, Davis MJ, Zawieja DC, Muthuchamy M. Calcium sensitivity and cooperativity of permeabilized rat mesenteric lymphatics. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2008; 294:R1524-32. [PMID: 18305021 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00888.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Lymphatic muscle contraction is critical for the centripetal movement of lymph that regulates fluid balance, protein homeostasis, lipid absorption, and immune function. We have demonstrated that lymphatic muscle has both smooth and striated muscle contractile elements; however, the basic contractile properties of this tissue remain poorly defined. We hypothesized that contractile characteristics of lymphatic myofilaments would be different from vascular smooth muscle myofilaments. To test this hypothesis, -log[Ca(2+)] (pCa)-tension relationship was determined for alpha-toxin permeabilized mesenteric lymphatics, arteries, and veins. The Ca(2+) sensitivity (pCa(50)) of mesenteric lymphatics was significantly lower compared with arteries (6.16 +/- 0.05 vs. 6.44 +/- 0.02; P < 0.05), whereas there was no difference in pCa(50) between lymphatics and veins (6.16 +/- 0.05 vs. 6.00 +/- 0.10; not significant). The Hill coefficient for alpha-toxin-permeabilized lymphatics was not significantly different from arteries but was significantly greater than that of the veins (1.98 +/- 0.19 vs. 1.21 +/- 0.18; P < 0.05). In addition, the maximal tension and pCa(50) values were significantly greater in alpha-toxin-permeabilized lymphatics compared with beta-escin-permeabilized lymphatics (0.27 +/- 0.03 vs. 0.15 +/- 0.01 and 6.16 +/- 0.05 vs. 5.86 +/- 0.06 mN/mm, respectively; P < 0.05), whereas the Hill coefficient was significantly greater in beta-escin-permeabilized lymphatics. Western blot analyses revealed that CPI-17 levels were significantly decreased by about 50% in beta-escin-permeabilized lymphatics, compared with controls, whereas no change in the level of calmodulin was detected. Our data constitute the first description of the pCa-tension relationship in permeabilized lymphatic muscle. It suggests that differences in myofilament Ca(2+) sensitivity and cooperativity among lymphatic muscle and vascular smooth muscles contribute to the functional differences that exist between these tissues.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Dougherty
- Department of Systems Biology and Translational Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, College Station, TX, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
|
32
|
Lynch PM, Delano FA, Schmid-Schönbein GW. The primary valves in the initial lymphatics during inflammation. Lymphat Res Biol 2007; 5:3-10. [PMID: 17508898 DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2007.5102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The primary valve system in the initial lymphatics prevents fluid transport from the initial lymphatics back into the interstitium. The authors hypothesize that since the primary valves are made up of an extraordinarily thin endothelium, they are readily compromised by mechanical or biochemical inflammatory stimuli. Thus, the opening dimension of the primary valves and their ability to prevent reflux into the interstitium during inflammation were investigated. METHODS AND RESULTS Acute inflammation was generated in the intact rat spinotrapezius muscle by suffusion of f-Met-Leu-Phe and platelet-activating factor. Once inflamed, the effective opening dimensions of the primary valves and the transport back out of the initial lymphatics were determined by examining the transport of fluorescent tracers from the interstitium to the lymphatics. Quantum dots and fluorescently labeled albumin readily enter initial lymphatics from the interstitium. The maximum diameter of microspheres that enter the initial lymphatics is between 0.5 microm and 0.8 microm in both control and inflamed tissue. While under control conditions no quantum dots escaped from initial lymphatics back into the interstitium, during inflammation there was extensive escape of quantum dots. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that, in acute inflammation, the function of the endothelial barriers in the initial lymphatics may be compromised. A failure of the primary lymphatic valves has two consequences. First, fluid clearance from the tissue is less efficient, which causes the level of edema to increase. Second, the leaking initial lymphatics allow inflammatory mediators to accumulate in the tissue, therefore enhancing interstitial and lymphatic inflammatory reactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick M Lynch
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0412, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Breslin JW, Gaudreault N, Watson KD, Reynoso R, Yuan SY, Wu MH. Vascular endothelial growth factor-C stimulates the lymphatic pump by a VEGF receptor-3-dependent mechanism. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2007; 293:H709-18. [PMID: 17400713 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00102.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C plays an important role in lymphangiogenesis; however, functional responses of lymphatic vessels to VEGF-C have not been characterized. We tested the hypothesis that VEGF-C-induced activation of VEGF receptor (VEGFR)-3 increases lymphatic pump output. We examined the in vivo pump activity of rat mesenteric collecting lymphatics using intravital microscopy during basal conditions and during treatment with 1 nM recombinant VEGF-C, the selective VEGFR-3 agonist VEGF-Cys156Ser mutation (C156S; 1 nM), or 0.1 nM VEGF-A. Their specific responses were also analyzed during selective inhibition of VEGFR-3 with MAZ-51. Contraction frequency, end-diastolic diameter, end-systolic diameter, stroke volume index, pump flow index, and ejection fraction were evaluated. We also assessed arteriolar diameter and microvascular extravasation of FITC-albumin. The results show that both VEGF-C and VEGF-C156S significantly increased contraction frequency, end-diastolic diameter, stroke volume index, and pump flow index in a time-dependent manner. VEGF-A caused a different response characterized by a significantly increased stroke volume after 30 min of treatment. MAZ-51 (5 μM) caused tonic constriction and decreased contraction frequency. In addition, 0.5 and 5 μM MAZ-51 attenuated VEGF-C- and VEGF-C156S-induced lymphatic pump activation. VEGF-A caused vasodilation of arterioles, whereas VEGF-C and VEGF-C156S did not significantly alter arteriolar diameter. Also, VEGF-A and VEGF-C caused increased microvascular permeability, whereas VEGF-C156S did not. Our results demonstrate that VEGF-C increases lymphatic pumping through VEGFR-3. Furthermore, changes in microvascular hemodynamics are not required for VEGFR-3-mediated changes in lymphatic pump activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jerome W Breslin
- Department of Surgery, Division of Research, School of Medicine, University of California-Davis, 2805 50th Street, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Galanzha EI, Tuchin VV, Zharov VP. Advances in small animal mesentery models for in vivo flow cytometry, dynamic microscopy, and drug screening. World J Gastroenterol 2007; 13:192-218. [PMID: 17226898 PMCID: PMC4065947 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v13.i2.192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Using animal mesentery with intravital optical microscopy is a well-established experimental model for studying blood and lymph microcirculation in vivo. Recent advances in cell biology and optical techniques provide the basis for extending this model for new applications, which should generate significantly improved experimental data. This review summarizes the achievements in this specific area, including in vivo label-free blood and lymph photothermal flow cytometry, super-sensitive fluorescence image cytometry, light scattering and speckle flow cytometry, microvessel dynamic microscopy, infrared (IR) angiography, and high-speed imaging of individual cells in fast flow. The capabilities of these techniques, using the rat mesentery model, were demonstrated in various studies; e.g., real-time quantitative detection of circulating and migrating individual blood and cancer cells, studies on vascular dynamics with a focus on lymphatics under normal conditions and under different interventions (e.g. lasers, drugs, nicotine), assessment of lymphatic disturbances from experimental lymphedema, monitoring cell traffic between blood and lymph systems, and high-speed imaging of cell transient deformability in flow. In particular, the obtained results demonstrated that individual cell transportation in living organisms depends on cell type (e.g., normal blood or leukemic cells), the cell’s functional state (e.g., live, apoptotic, or necrotic), and the functional status of the organism. Possible future applications, including in vivo early diagnosis and prevention of disease, monitoring immune response and apoptosis, chemo- and radio-sensitivity tests, and drug screening, are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina I Galanzha
- Philips Classic Laser Laboratories, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham St., Little Rock, AR 72205-7199, United States.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Gasheva OY, Zawieja DC, Gashev AA. Contraction-initiated NO-dependent lymphatic relaxation: a self-regulatory mechanism in rat thoracic duct. J Physiol 2006; 575:821-32. [PMID: 16809357 PMCID: PMC1995691 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2006.115212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2006] [Accepted: 06/22/2006] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to evaluate the physiological importance of the flow and shear generated by phasic contractions of lymphatic vessels and the mechanisms responsible for the influences of such shear on lymphatic pumping. Lymphatic segments of the rat thoracic duct were isolated, cannulated and pressurized. The diastolic diameters were measured in phasically non-active segments. The diastolic and systolic diameters, half-relaxation time (HRT), contraction frequency, ejection fraction and fractional pump flow were determined in phasically active segments. Since imposed flow was excluded, flow and shear occurred only as a result of the intrinsic contractions in phasically active segments whereas in phasically non-active segments contraction-generated flow and shear were absent. The influences of incrementally increased transmural pressure (from 1 to 5 cmH(2)O) were examined in control conditions and after NO synthase blockade (l-NAME 10(-4) m) or cyclooxygenase blockade (indomethacin 10(-5) m). The spontaneous phasic contractions produced a flow-dependent diastolic relaxation. This reduction of the lymphatic tone is a regulatory mechanism that maintains pumping in thoracic duct in an energy-saving/efficient mode: it improves diastolic filling (enhanced lusitropy - lowering HRT), makes lymphatic contractions stronger (enhanced inotropy - higher contraction amplitude) and propels more fluid forward during each contraction (elevated ejection fraction) while decreasing contraction frequency (reduced chronotropy). The findings also demonstrated that the NO pathway, not the cyclooxygenase pathway is responsible for this reduction of lymphatic tone and is the prevailing pathway responsible for the self-regulatory adjustment of thoracic duct pumping to changes in lymph flow pattern.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olga Yu Gasheva
- Department of Systems Biology and Translational Medicine, College of Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Institute Division of Lymphatic Biology, Texas A & M Health Science Center, College Station, TX 77843-1114, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Hosaka K, Rayner SE, von der Weid PY, Zhao J, Imtiaz MS, van Helden DF. Calcitonin gene-related peptide activates different signaling pathways in mesenteric lymphatics of guinea pigs. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2005; 290:H813-22. [PMID: 16172164 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00543.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The effects of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) on constriction frequency, smooth muscle membrane potential (V(m)), and endothelial V(m) of guinea pig mesenteric lymphatics were examined in vitro. CGRP (1-100 nM) caused an endothelium-dependent decrease in the constriction frequency of perfused lymphatic vessels. The endothelium-dependent CGRP response was abolished by the CGRP-1 receptor antagonist CGRP-(8-37) (1 microM) and pertussis toxin (100 ng/ml). This action of CGRP was also blocked by the nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor N(G)-nitro-L-arginine (L-NNA; 10 microM), an action that was reversed by the addition of L-arginine (100 microM). cGMP, adenylate cyclase, cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), and ATP-sensitive K+ (K+(ATP)) channels were all implicated in the endothelium-dependent CGRP response because it was abolished by methylene blue (20 microM), 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (10 microM), dideoxyadenosine (10 microM), N-[2-(p-bromociannamylamino)-ethyl]-5-isoquinolinesulfonamide-dichloride (H89; 1 microM) and glibenclamide (10 microM). CGRP (100 nM), unlike acetylcholine, did not alter endothelial intracellular Ca2+ concentration or V(m). CGRP (100 nM) hyperpolarized the smooth muscle V(m), an effect inhibited by L-NNA, H89, or glibenclamide. CGRP (500 nM) also caused a decrease in constriction frequency. However, this was no longer blocked by CGRP-(8-37). CGRP (500 nM) also caused smooth muscle hyperpolarization, an action that was now not blocked by L-NNA (100 microM). It was most likely mediated by the activation of the cAMP/PKA pathway and the opening of K+(ATP) channels because it was abolished by H89 or glibenclamide. We conclude that CGRP, at low to moderate concentrations (i.e., 1-100 nM), decreases lymphatic constriction frequency primarily by the stimulation of CGRP-1 receptors coupled to pertussis toxin-sensitive G proteins and the release of NO from the endothelium or enhancement of the actions of endogenous NO. At high concentrations (i.e., 500 nM), CGRP also directly activates the smooth muscle independent of NO. Both mechanisms of activation ultimately cause the PKA-mediated opening of K+(ATP) channels and resultant hyperpolarization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kayoko Hosaka
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Univ. of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|