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Drug resistance and plasma viral RNA level after ineffective use of oral pre-exposure prophylaxis in women. AIDS 2015; 29:331-7. [PMID: 25503265 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000000556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) with daily oral emtricitabine (FTC)/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate may select for drug resistance if there is low adherence. METHODS Plasma viral HIV-1 RNA level, CD4+ T-cell counts, and drug resistance were evaluated among seroconverting women in the FEM-PrEP trial (clinicaltrials.gov NCT00625404) using standard clinical tests, allele-specific PCR (ASPCR), and by deep sequencing. Tenofovir, FTC, and their intracellular metabolites were measured in plasma and cells. RESULTS There was no difference in plasma HIV-1 RNA level or CD4+ cell count among seroconverters in the active arm versus those receiving placebo. Tenofovir resistance was not observed. FTC resistance was detected using clinical assays in five seroconverters (four in the active arm and one in the placebo arm); two in the active arm occurred among women having moderate concentrations of PrEP drugs in the blood. The first evidence of infection occurred at the first postenrollment visit in three of the four with FTC resistance, although none had detectable viral nucleic acids at enrollment. FTC-resistant minor variants were detected in an additional four seroconverters (one in the active arm and three in the placebo arm). CONCLUSIONS Drug resistance detected during ineffective PrEP use had characteristics suggesting transmitted infection or incubating infection prior to starting PrEP.
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Abstract
In cases of central nervous system infection, it is crucial for the neuroradiologist to provide an accurate differential diagnosis of the possible pathogens involved so that treating physicians can be aided in the choice of empiric therapy. This approach requires the radiologist to be aware of local epidemiology and have knowledge of infectious agents that are endemic to their area of practice. This article reviews and discusses the changing epidemiology of pathogens most often observed in meningitis, brain abscess, epidural abscess, postoperative infections, and human immunodeficiency virus infection.
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Kassutto S, Rosenberg ES. Primary HIV type 1 infection. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 38:1447-53. [PMID: 15156484 DOI: 10.1086/420745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2003] [Accepted: 01/14/2004] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging evidence suggests that early events in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection may play a critical role in determining disease progression. Although there is limited evidence on which to base medical decisions, the diagnosis and treatment of acute HIV-1 infection may have virologic, immunologic, and clinical benefits. In addition, rapid diagnosis of infection may prevent unknowing transmission of HIV-1 during a period of high-level viremia. We review the basic principles of primary HIV-1 infection, clinical and diagnostic markers of acute seroconversion, approaches to management, and new therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sigall Kassutto
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Abstract
In the past few years, several strides have been made in the ability to detect the presence of HIV-1 and HIV-2. This article discusses recent advances in serologic testing, including routine ELISA and Western blot tests, rapid HIV tests, home collection kits, and HIV tests using nonserum samples. The clinical application of nucleic acid-based tests also is discussed. Finally, appropriate use of these tests in both acute HIV-1 infection and in infants is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph A DeSimone
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Jefferson Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
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Abstract
To identify the early target cells and tissues in transmucosal feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection, cats were exposed to a clade C FIV isolate via the oral-nasal or vaginal mucosa and multiple tissues were examined by virus isolation coculture (VI), DNA PCR, catalyzed tyramide signal-amplified in situ hybridization (TSA-ISH), and immunohistochemistry between days 1 and 12 postinoculation (p.i.). FIV RNA was detected in tonsil and oral or vaginal mucosa as early as 1 day p.i. by TSA-ISH and in retropharyngeal, tracheobronchial, or external iliac lymph nodes and sometimes in spleen or blood mononuclear cells by day 2, indicating that regional and distant spread of virus-infected cells occurred rapidly after mucosal exposure. By day 8, viral RNA, DNA, and culturable virus were uniformly detected in regional and distant tissues, connoting systemic infection. TSA-ISH proved more sensitive than DNA PCR in detecting early FIV-infected cells. In mucosal tissues, the earliest demonstrable FIV-bearing cells were either within or subjacent to the mucosal epithelium or were in germinal centers of regional lymph nodes. The FIV(+) cells were of either of two morphological types, large stellate or small round. Those FIV RNA(+) cells which could be colabeled for a phenotype marker, were labeled for either dendritic-cell-associated protein p55 or T-lymphocyte receptor antigen CD3. These studies indicate that FIV crosses mucous membranes within hours after exposure and rapidly traffics via dendritic and T cells to systemic lymphoid tissues, a pathway similar to that thought to occur in the initial phase of infection by the human and simian immunodeficiency viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie A Obert
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- J O Kahn
- AIDS Program, San Francisco General Hospital and the University of California, USA
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Rosenberg YJ, Cafaro A, Brennan T, Greenhouse JG, McKinnon K, Bellah S, Yalley-Ogunro J, Gartner S, Lewis MG. Characteristics of the CD8+ lymphocytosis during primary simian immunodeficiency virus infections. AIDS 1997; 11:959-68. [PMID: 9223729 DOI: 10.1097/00002030-199708000-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the source of the expanded blood CD8+ subsets during an acute primary simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection of macaques and the potential role of these cells in disease progression. DESIGN AND METHODS The primary CD8+ lymphocytosis, which occurs at 1-2 weeks following infection with SIVsmm/PBj-14, was examined in rhesus and cynomolgus macaques. Extensive subset analysis of the expanded blood CD8+ cell pool in a rhesus macaque was compared phenotypically with those in thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, ileum and lung washouts obtained at necropsy during blood lymphocytosis. The influence of the primary CD8+ cells expansion on disease progression was assessed at days 175-679 post-infection in long-term PBj-14 survivors staged according to immunological, virological and histopathological changes in their lymphoid organs. RESULT The very rapid and transient blood lymphocytosis following infection consisted of two distinct CD45RA(low), CD8+ and CD28-, lymphocyte function-associated antigen (LFA)-1(high), CD45RA(high), CD8+ populations. These populations were present in low levels in thymus, lymph and spleen but were highly represented in mucosal tissues, such as long washout, in which CD28- LFA-1(high) CD45RA(high) CD8+ cells comprised 86% of CD8+ cells, and gut, which was predominantly CD45RA(low) CD28- CD8+ cells. A comparison of progressor and non-progressor PBj-14-infected rhesus and cynomolgus macaques also indicated that the existence or magnitude of a blood CD8+ lymphocytosis during the acute phase of infection did not by itself appear to influence or be predictive of disease progression. CONCLUSION The marked blood CD8+ lymphocytosis observed during acute SIV infection did not result from expansion of virus-specific precursors in peripheral lymph node and did not appear to influence the rate of disease progression. The findings provide a novel explanation for the primary CD8+ cell lymphocytosis and invoke a mechanism whereby virus-induced cytokine/chemokine production in mucosal sites initiate the transient migration of a pre-existing CD8+ population into the blood from compartments such as lung and gut. Such results suggest that the magnitude of lymphocytosis may depend on the level of viral replication in mucosal tissues and the presence of other infections, for example, cytomegalovirus.
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Marquardt DL. EARLY SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF HIV INFECTION IN AN ALLERGY PRACTICE. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0889-8561(05)70300-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Marquardt DL. EARLY SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF HIV INFECTION IN AN ALLERGY PRACTICE. Radiol Clin North Am 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0033-8389(22)00272-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Abstract
Symptomatic primary human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection was originally defined as a mononucleosis-like syndrome, with or without lymphocytic meningitis, associated with seroconversion for HIV. However, other protean clinical manifestations have been reported, and diagnosis should be considered in patients with risk factors for HIV who experience acute infectious illness, requiring search for p24 antigenemia and development of HIV antibodies. The clinical presentation of symptomatic HIV infection could predict the subsequent disease progression. In several studies, it is associated with poor prognosis. Pathogenesis relies on the host immune response and on virologic parameters. Early antiretroviral therapy on acute HIV infection could modify the course of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Bachmeyer
- Département de médecine interne, hôpital Laënnec, Creil, France
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McElrath MJ, Corey L, Greenberg PD, Matthews TJ, Montefiori DC, Rowen L, Hood L, Mullins JI. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection despite prior immunization with a recombinant envelope vaccine regimen. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996; 93:3972-7. [PMID: 8633000 PMCID: PMC39470 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.93.9.3972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
With efforts underway to develop a preventive human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) vaccine, it remains unclear which immune responses are sufficient to protect against infection and whether prior HIV-1 immunity can alter the subsequent course of HIV-1 infection. We investigated these issues in the context of a volunteer who received six HIV-1LAI envelope immunizations and 10 weeks thereafter acquired HIV-1 infection through a high-risk sexual exposure. In contrast to nonvaccinated acutely infected individuals, anamnestic HIV-1-specific B- and T-cell responses appeared within 3 weeks in this individual, and neutralizing antibody preceded CD8+ cytotoxic responses. Despite an asymptomatic course and an initial low level of detectable infectious virus, a progressive CD4+ cell decline and dysfunction occurred within 2 years. Although vaccination elicited immunity to HIV-1 envelope, which was recalled upon HIV-1 exposure, it was insufficient to prevent infection and subsequent immunodeficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J McElrath
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle 98195, USA
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Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection usually elicits an early, strong and efficient immune response, despite which the virus can persist in the organism by using a complex strategy. It escapes immune surveillance through direct and indirect effects on cells of the immune system; by modifying its biological properties; and by antigenic drift as a result of the immune response selective pressure. The immune response to the virus could also lead to detrimental immunopathological mechanisms. In particular, any immune stimulation may increase the viral load, and specific immunisation may lead to enhancement of infection. However, reports that some "at risk" non HIV-infected individuals present markers of cell-mediated immunity to the virus, and occurrence of "long-term survivors" strongly suggests that the immune response to HIV may sometimes be protective. Understanding the immunological mechanisms involved in this infection is thus essential.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Gluckman
- Laboratoire d'immunologie cellulaire de l'école pratique des hautes études, hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtriere, Paris, France
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De Rossi A, Masiero S, Giaquinto C, Ruga E, Comar M, Giacca M, Chieco-Bianchi L. Dynamics of viral replication in infants with vertically acquired human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Clin Invest 1996; 97:323-30. [PMID: 8567951 PMCID: PMC507021 DOI: 10.1172/jci118419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
About one-third of vertically HIV-1 infected infants develop AIDS within the first months of life; the remainder show slower disease progression. We investigated the relationship between the pattern of HIV-1 replication early in life and disease outcome in eleven infected infants sequentially studied from birth. Viral load in cells and plasma was measured by highly sensitive competitive PCR-based methods. Although all infants showed an increase in the indices of viral replication within their first weeks of life, three distinct patterns emerged: (a) a rapid increase in plasma viral RNA and cell-associated proviral DNA during the first 4-6 wk, reaching high steady state levels (> 1,000 HIV-1 copies/10(5) PBMC and > 1,000,000 RNA copies/ml plasma) within 2-3 mo of age; (b) a similar initial rapid increase in viral load, followed by a 2.5-50-fold decline in viral levels; (c) a significantly lower (> 10-fold) viral increase during the first 4-6 wk of age. All infants displaying the first pattern developed early AIDS, while infants with slower clinical progression exhibited the second or third pattern. These findings demonstrate that the pattern of viral replication and clearance in the first 2-3 mo of life is strictly correlated with, and predictive of disease evolution in vertically infected infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- A De Rossi
- Institute of Oncology, InterUniversity Center for Cancer Research, AIDS Reference Center, University of Padova, Italy
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Affiliation(s)
- L Perrin
- Laboratory of Virology and AIDS Center, Geneva University Hospital, Switzerland
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Kinloch-De Loës S, Hirschel BJ, Hoen B, Cooper DA, Tindall B, Carr A, Saurat JH, Clumeck N, Lazzarin A, Mathiesen L. A controlled trial of zidovudine in primary human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1995; 333:408-13. [PMID: 7616989 DOI: 10.1056/nejm199508173330702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 222] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It is possible that antiretroviral treatment given early during primary infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) may reduce acute symptoms, help preserve immune function, and improve the long-term prognosis. METHODS To assess the effect of early antiviral treatment, we conducted a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in which 77 patients with primary HIV infection were randomly assigned to receive either zidovudine (250 mg twice daily; n = 39) or placebo (n = 38) for six months. RESULTS The mean time from the onset of symptoms until enrollment in the study was 25.1 days. Among the 43 patients who were still symptomatic at the time of enrollment, there was no appreciable difference in the mean (+/- SE) duration of the retroviral syndrome between the zidovudine group (15.0 +/- 4.1 days) and the placebo group (15.8 +/- 3.6 days). During a mean follow-up period of 15 months, minor opportunistic infections developed in eight patients: oral candidiasis in four, herpes zoster in two, and oral hairy leukoplakia in two. Disease progression was significantly less frequent in the zidovudine group (one opportunistic infection) than in the placebo group (seven opportunistic infections; P = 0.009 by the log-rank test). After adjustment for the base-line CD4 cell count, the patients treated with zidovudine had an average gain of 8.9 CD4 cells per cubic millimeter per month (95 percent confidence interval, -1.4 to 19.1) during the first six months of the study, whereas those receiving placebo had an average loss of 12.0 CD4 cells per cubic millimeter per month (95 percent confidence interval, 5.2 to 18.7), for a between-group difference of 20.9 CD4 cells per cubic millimeter per month (95 percent confidence interval, 8.5 to 33.2; P = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Antiretroviral therapy administered during primary HIV infection may improve the subsequent clinical course and increase the CD4 cell count.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kinloch-De Loës
- Central Laboratory of Virology, Geneva University Hospital, Switzerland
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Lindbäck S, Broström C, Karlsson A, Gaines H. Does symptomatic primary HIV-1 infection accelerate progression to CDC stage IV disease, CD4 count below 200 x 10(6)/l, AIDS, and death from AIDS? BMJ (CLINICAL RESEARCH ED.) 1994; 309:1535-7. [PMID: 7819891 PMCID: PMC2541767 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.309.6968.1535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the prognostic significance of symptomatic primary HIV-1 infection. DESIGN Prospective study of homosexual men seroconverting to HIV in 1985 and 1986. Patients were followed up at least three times yearly with clinical examinations and T cell subset determinations for an average of 7.2 years. SETTING Research project centred on attenders for treatment and screening for HIV at the Karolinska Institute, Stockholm. SUBJECTS 19 patients presenting with a glandular-fever-like illness associated with seroconversion to HIV and 29 asymptomatic seroconverters. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Progression to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention stage IV disease, CD4 cell count below 200 x 10(6)/l, AIDS, and death from AIDS. RESULTS Symptomatic seroconverters were significantly more likely to develop Centers for Disease Control and Prevention stage IV disease (95% v 66%), CD4 cell counts below 200 x 10(6)/l (84% v 55%), and AIDS (58% v 28%) and die of AIDS (53% v 7%). CONCLUSION A glandular-fever-like illness associated with seroconversion to HIV-1 predicts accelerated progression to AIDS and other HIV related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Lindbäck
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Huddinge Hospital, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
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Abstract
Although twelve years have passed since the identification of HIV as the cause of AIDS, we do not yet know how HIV kills its target, the CD4+ T cell, nor how this killing cripples the immune system. Prominent theories include direct killing of infected CD4+ T cells by the action or accumulation of cytopathic viral DNA, transcripts or proteins, or by virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes, and indirect killing of uninfected CD4+ T cells (and other immune cells) by autoimmune mechanisms, cytokines, superantigens, or apoptosis. In the past year, studies have provided tantalizing clues as to why infected cells may not die and how these infected cells kill innocent bystander cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- T H Finkel
- Department of Pediatrics, National Jewish Center for Immunology and Respiratory Medicine, Denver, Colorado 80206
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