1
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Birch-Price Z, Hardy FJ, Lister TM, Kohn AR, Green AP. Noncanonical Amino Acids in Biocatalysis. Chem Rev 2024; 124:8740-8786. [PMID: 38959423 PMCID: PMC11273360 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.4c00120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2024] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
In recent years, powerful genetic code reprogramming methods have emerged that allow new functional components to be embedded into proteins as noncanonical amino acid (ncAA) side chains. In this review, we will illustrate how the availability of an expanded set of amino acid building blocks has opened a wealth of new opportunities in enzymology and biocatalysis research. Genetic code reprogramming has provided new insights into enzyme mechanisms by allowing introduction of new spectroscopic probes and the targeted replacement of individual atoms or functional groups. NcAAs have also been used to develop engineered biocatalysts with improved activity, selectivity, and stability, as well as enzymes with artificial regulatory elements that are responsive to external stimuli. Perhaps most ambitiously, the combination of genetic code reprogramming and laboratory evolution has given rise to new classes of enzymes that use ncAAs as key catalytic elements. With the framework for developing ncAA-containing biocatalysts now firmly established, we are optimistic that genetic code reprogramming will become a progressively more powerful tool in the armory of enzyme designers and engineers in the coming years.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Anthony P. Green
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology,
School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, U.K.
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2
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Han J, Wang L, Tang X, Liu R, Shi L, Zhu J, Zhao M. Glsirt1-mediated deacetylation of GlCAT regulates intracellular ROS levels, affecting ganoderic acid biosynthesis in Ganoderma lucidum. Free Radic Biol Med 2024; 216:1-11. [PMID: 38458391 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2024.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2024] [Revised: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
Lysine acetylation is a reversible, dynamic protein modification regulated by lysine acetyltransferases and deacetylases. However, in Basidiomycetes, the extent of lysine acetylation of nonhistone proteins remains largely unknown. Recently, we identified the deacetylase Glsirt1 as a key regulator of the biosynthesis of ganoderic acid (GA), a key secondary metabolite of Ganoderma lucidum. To gain insight into the characteristics, extent, and biological function of Glsirt1-mediated lysine acetylation in G. lucidum, we aimed to identify additional Glsirt1 substrates via comparison of acetylomes between wild-type (WT) and Glsirt1-silenced mutants. A large amount of Glsirt1-dependent lysine acetylation occurs in G. lucidum according to the results of this omics analysis, involving energy metabolism, protein synthesis, the stress response and other pathways. Our results suggest that GlCAT is a direct target of Glsirt1 and that the deacetylation of GlCAT by Glsirt1 reduces catalase activity, thereby leading to the accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and positively regulating the biosynthesis of GA. Our findings provide evidence for the involvement of nonhistone lysine acetylation in the biological processes of G. lucidum and help elucidate the involvement of important ROS signaling molecules in regulating physiological and biochemical processes in this organism. In conclusion, this proteomic analysis reveals a striking breadth of cellular processes affected by lysine acetylation and provides new nodes of intervention in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in G. lucidum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Han
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Microbiology Department, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Lingshuai Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Microbiology Department, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Xin Tang
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Microbiology Department, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Rui Liu
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Microbiology Department, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Liang Shi
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Microbiology Department, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Jing Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Microbiology Department, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Mingwen Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environmental Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Microbiology Department, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, Jiangsu, PR China.
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3
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Gan Q, Fan C. Orthogonal Translation for Site-Specific Installation of Post-translational Modifications. Chem Rev 2024; 124:2805-2838. [PMID: 38373737 PMCID: PMC11230630 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) endow proteins with new properties to respond to environmental changes or growth needs. With the development of advanced proteomics techniques, hundreds of distinct types of PTMs have been observed in a wide range of proteins from bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. To identify the roles of these PTMs, scientists have applied various approaches. However, high dynamics, low stoichiometry, and crosstalk between PTMs make it almost impossible to obtain homogeneously modified proteins for characterization of the site-specific effect of individual PTM on target proteins. To solve this problem, the genetic code expansion (GCE) strategy has been introduced into the field of PTM studies. Instead of modifying proteins after translation, GCE incorporates modified amino acids into proteins during translation, thus generating site-specifically modified proteins at target positions. In this review, we summarize the development of GCE systems for orthogonal translation for site-specific installation of PTMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinglei Gan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, United States
| | - Chenguang Fan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, United States
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, United States
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4
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Kremer M, Schulze S, Eisenbruch N, Nagel F, Vogt R, Berndt L, Dörre B, Palm GJ, Hoppen J, Girbardt B, Albrecht D, Sievers S, Delcea M, Baumann U, Schnetz K, Lammers M. Bacteria employ lysine acetylation of transcriptional regulators to adapt gene expression to cellular metabolism. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1674. [PMID: 38395951 PMCID: PMC10891134 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46039-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The Escherichia coli TetR-related transcriptional regulator RutR is involved in the coordination of pyrimidine and purine metabolism. Here we report that lysine acetylation modulates RutR function. Applying the genetic code expansion concept, we produced site-specifically lysine-acetylated RutR proteins. The crystal structure of lysine-acetylated RutR reveals how acetylation switches off RutR-DNA-binding. We apply the genetic code expansion concept in E. coli in vivo revealing the consequences of RutR acetylation on the transcriptional level. We propose a model in which RutR acetylation follows different kinetic profiles either reacting non-enzymatically with acetyl-phosphate or enzymatically catalysed by the lysine acetyltransferases PatZ/YfiQ and YiaC. The NAD+-dependent sirtuin deacetylase CobB reverses enzymatic and non-enzymatic acetylation of RutR playing a dual regulatory and detoxifying role. By detecting cellular acetyl-CoA, NAD+ and acetyl-phosphate, bacteria apply lysine acetylation of transcriptional regulators to sense the cellular metabolic state directly adjusting gene expression to changing environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Kremer
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Straße 47, 50674, Cologne, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Synthetic and Structural Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Sabrina Schulze
- Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Synthetic and Structural Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Nadja Eisenbruch
- Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Synthetic and Structural Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Felix Nagel
- Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Robert Vogt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Synthetic and Structural Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Leona Berndt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Synthetic and Structural Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Babett Dörre
- Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Synthetic and Structural Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Gottfried J Palm
- Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Synthetic and Structural Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Jens Hoppen
- Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Synthetic and Structural Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Britta Girbardt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Synthetic and Structural Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Dirk Albrecht
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Microbial Physiology and Molecular Biology, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 8, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Susanne Sievers
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Microbial Physiology and Molecular Biology, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 8, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Mihaela Delcea
- Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Ulrich Baumann
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Straße 47, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Karin Schnetz
- Institute for Genetics, University of Cologne Zülpicher Straße 47a, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Michael Lammers
- Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Synthetic and Structural Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17489, Greifswald, Germany.
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5
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Wright DE, O’Donoghue P. Biosynthesis, Engineering, and Delivery of Selenoproteins. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:223. [PMID: 38203392 PMCID: PMC10778597 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Selenocysteine (Sec) was discovered as the 21st genetically encoded amino acid. In nature, site-directed incorporation of Sec into proteins requires specialized biosynthesis and recoding machinery that evolved distinctly in bacteria compared to archaea and eukaryotes. Many organisms, including higher plants and most fungi, lack the Sec-decoding trait. We review the discovery of Sec and its role in redox enzymes that are essential to human health and important targets in disease. We highlight recent genetic code expansion efforts to engineer site-directed incorporation of Sec in bacteria and yeast. We also review methods to produce selenoproteins with 21 or more amino acids and approaches to delivering recombinant selenoproteins to mammalian cells as new applications for selenoproteins in synthetic biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E. Wright
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada;
| | - Patrick O’Donoghue
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada;
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
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6
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Frederick MI, Hovey OFJ, Kakadia JH, Shepherd TG, Li SSC, Heinemann IU. Proteomic and Phosphoproteomic Reprogramming in Epithelial Ovarian Cancer Metastasis. Mol Cell Proteomics 2023; 22:100660. [PMID: 37820923 PMCID: PMC10652129 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcpro.2023.100660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is a high-risk cancer presenting with heterogeneous tumors. The high incidence of EOC metastasis from primary tumors to nearby tissues and organs is a major driver of EOC lethality. We used cellular models of spheroid formation and readherence to investigate cellular signaling dynamics in each step toward EOC metastasis. In our system, adherent cells model primary tumors, spheroid formation represents the initiation of metastatic spread, and readherent spheroid cells represent secondary tumors. Proteomic and phosphoproteomic analyses show that spheroid cells are hypoxic and show markers for cell cycle arrest. Aurora kinase B abundance and downstream substrate phosphorylation are significantly reduced in spheroids and readherent cells, explaining their cell cycle arrest phenotype. The proteome of readherent cells is most similar to spheroids, yet greater changes in the phosphoproteome show that spheroid cells stimulate Rho-associated kinase 1 (ROCK1)-mediated signaling, which controls cytoskeletal organization. In spheroids, we found significant phosphorylation of ROCK1 substrates that were reduced in both adherent and readherent cells. Application of the ROCK1-specific inhibitor Y-27632 to spheroids increased the rate of readherence and altered spheroid density. The data suggest ROCK1 inhibition increases EOC metastatic potential. We identified novel pathways controlled by Aurora kinase B and ROCK1 as major drivers of metastatic behavior in EOC cells. Our data show that phosphoproteomic reprogramming precedes proteomic changes that characterize spheroid readherence in EOC metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mallory I Frederick
- Department of Biochemistry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Owen F J Hovey
- Department of Biochemistry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jenica H Kakadia
- Department of Biochemistry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Trevor G Shepherd
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada; London Regional Cancer Program, London Health Sciences Centre, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shawn S C Li
- Department of Biochemistry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Ilka U Heinemann
- Department of Biochemistry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.
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7
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Bednar RM, Karplus PA, Mehl RA. Site-specific dual encoding and labeling of proteins via genetic code expansion. Cell Chem Biol 2023; 30:343-361. [PMID: 36977415 PMCID: PMC10764108 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2023.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
The ability to selectively modify proteins at two or more defined locations opens new avenues for manipulating, engineering, and studying living systems. As a chemical biology tool for the site-specific encoding of non-canonical amino acids into proteins in vivo, genetic code expansion (GCE) represents a powerful tool to achieve such modifications with minimal disruption to structure and function through a two-step "dual encoding and labeling" (DEAL) process. In this review, we summarize the state of the field of DEAL using GCE. In doing so, we describe the basic principles of GCE-based DEAL, catalog compatible encoding systems and reactions, explore demonstrated and potential applications, highlight emerging paradigms in DEAL methodologies, and propose novel solutions to current limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riley M Bednar
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Oregon State University, 2011 Agricultural and Life Sciences Building, Corvallis, OR 97331-7305, USA; GCE4All Research Center, Oregon State University, 2011 Agricultural and Life Sciences, Corvallis, OR 97331-7305, USA
| | - P Andrew Karplus
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Oregon State University, 2011 Agricultural and Life Sciences Building, Corvallis, OR 97331-7305, USA; GCE4All Research Center, Oregon State University, 2011 Agricultural and Life Sciences, Corvallis, OR 97331-7305, USA
| | - Ryan A Mehl
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Oregon State University, 2011 Agricultural and Life Sciences Building, Corvallis, OR 97331-7305, USA; GCE4All Research Center, Oregon State University, 2011 Agricultural and Life Sciences, Corvallis, OR 97331-7305, USA.
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8
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Hukkamlı B, Dağdelen B, Sönmez Aydın F, Budak H. Comparison of the efficacy of the mouse hepatic and renal antioxidant systems against inflammation-induced oxidative stress. Cell Biochem Biophys 2023:10.1007/s12013-023-01126-3. [PMID: 36773183 DOI: 10.1007/s12013-023-01126-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
This study was conducted to compare the efficacy of the mouse hepatic and renal antioxidant systems against inflammation-induced oxidative stress. Increased Il-1 and Il-6 expressions, markers of inflammation, were represented by inflammation models in mouse liver and kidney tissues injected intraperitoneally with LPS. After establishing the model, the GSH level and the GSH/GSSG ratio, which are oxidative stress markers, were investigated in both tissues treated with LPS and the control group. The expression of Trx1, TrxR, and Txnip genes increased in the liver tissues of LPS-treated mice. In the kidney tissue, while Trx1 expression decreased, no change was observed in TrxR1 expression, and Txnip expression increased. In the kidneys, TRXR1 and GR activities decreased, whereas GPx activity increased. In both tissues, the TRXR1 protein expression decreased significantly, while TXNIP expression increased. In conclusion, different behaviors of antioxidant system members were observed during acute inflammation in both tissues. Additionally, it can be said that the kidney tissue is more sensitive and takes earlier measures than the liver tissue against cellular damage caused by inflammation and inflammation-induced oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berna Hukkamlı
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Science Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, 25240, Türkiye
- Department of Chemical and Chemical Processing Technologies, Boyabat Vocational School, Sinop University, Sinop, 57200, Türkiye
| | - Burak Dağdelen
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Selçuk University, Konya, 42250, Türkiye
| | - Feyza Sönmez Aydın
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Science Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, 25240, Türkiye
- Department of Pathology Laboratory Techniques, Vocational School, Doğuş University, Istanbul, 34775, Türkiye
| | - Harun Budak
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Science Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, 25240, Türkiye.
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9
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Morosky P, Comyns C, Nunes LGA, Chung CZ, Hoffmann PR, Söll D, Vargas-Rodriguez O, Krahn N. Dual incorporation of non-canonical amino acids enables production of post-translationally modified selenoproteins. Front Mol Biosci 2023; 10:1096261. [PMID: 36762212 PMCID: PMC9902344 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2023.1096261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) can occur on almost all amino acids in eukaryotes as a key mechanism for regulating protein function. The ability to study the role of these modifications in various biological processes requires techniques to modify proteins site-specifically. One strategy for this is genetic code expansion (GCE) in bacteria. The low frequency of post-translational modifications in bacteria makes it a preferred host to study whether the presence of a post-translational modification influences a protein's function. Genetic code expansion employs orthogonal translation systems engineered to incorporate a modified amino acid at a designated protein position. Selenoproteins, proteins containing selenocysteine, are also known to be post-translationally modified. Selenoproteins have essential roles in oxidative stress, immune response, cell maintenance, and skeletal muscle regeneration. Their complicated biosynthesis mechanism has been a hurdle in our understanding of selenoprotein functions. As technologies for selenocysteine insertion have recently improved, we wanted to create a genetic system that would allow the study of post-translational modifications in selenoproteins. By combining genetic code expansion techniques and selenocysteine insertion technologies, we were able to recode stop codons for insertion of N ε-acetyl-l-lysine and selenocysteine, respectively, into multiple proteins. The specificity of these amino acids for their assigned position and the simplicity of reverting the modified amino acid via mutagenesis of the codon sequence demonstrates the capacity of this method to study selenoproteins and the role of their post-translational modifications. Moreover, the evidence that Sec insertion technology can be combined with genetic code expansion tools further expands the chemical biology applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pearl Morosky
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Cody Comyns
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Lance G. A. Nunes
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, United States
| | - Christina Z. Chung
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Peter R. Hoffmann
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, United States
| | - Dieter Söll
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Oscar Vargas-Rodriguez
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Natalie Krahn
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
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10
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Wright DE, Siddika T, Heinemann IU, O’Donoghue P. Delivery of the selenoprotein thioredoxin reductase 1 to mammalian cells. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:1031756. [PMID: 36304926 PMCID: PMC9595596 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.1031756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Over-expression of genetically encoded thioredoxin reductase 1 (TrxR1) TrxR1 can be toxic to cells due to the formation of a truncated version of the enzyme. We developed a new mammalian cell-based model to investigate TrxR1 activity. Fusion of the HIV-derived cell penetrating peptide (TAT) enabled efficient cellular uptake of purified TrxR1 containing 21 genetically encoded amino acids, including selenocysteine. The TAT peptide did not significantly alter the catalytic activity of TrxR1 in vitro. We monitored TrxR1-dependent redox activity in human cells using a TrxR1-specific red fluorescent live-cell reporter. Using programmed selenocysteine incorporation in Escherichia coli, our approach allowed efficient production of active recombinant human selenoprotein TrxR1 for delivery to the homologous context of the mammalian cell. The delivered TAT-TrxR1 showed robust activity in live cells and provided a novel platform to study TrxR1 biology in human cells.
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11
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Guo W, Wu Z, Chen J, Guo S, You W, Wang S, Ma J, Wang H, Wang X, Wang H, Ma J, Yang Y, Tian Y, Shi Q, Gao T, Yi X, Li C. Nanoparticle delivery of miR-21-3p sensitizes melanoma to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy by promoting ferroptosis. J Immunother Cancer 2022; 10:jitc-2021-004381. [PMID: 35738798 PMCID: PMC9226924 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2021-004381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) immunotherapy is greatly effective in melanoma treatment, low response rate and treatment resistance significantly hinder its efficacy. Tumor cell ferroptosis triggered by interferon (IFN)-γ that is derived from tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells greatly contributes to the effect of immunotherapy. However, the molecular mechanism underlying IFN-γ-mediated ferroptosis and related potentially promising therapeutic strategy warrant further clarification. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) participate in ferroptosis execution and can be delivered systemically by multiple carriers, which have manifested obvious therapeutic effects on cancer. Methods MiRNAs expression profile in IFN-γ-driven ferroptosis was obtained by RNA sequencing. Biochemical assays were used to clarify the role of miR-21-3p in IFN-γ-driven ferroptosis and the underlying mechanism. MiR-21-3p-loaded gold nanoparticles were constructed and systemically applied to analyze the role of miR-21-3p in anti-PD-1 immunotherapy in preclinical transplanted tumor model. Results MiRNAs expression profile of melanoma cells in IFN-γ-driven ferroptosis was first obtained. Then, upregulated miR-21-3p was proved to facilitate IFN-γ-mediated ferroptosis by potentiating lipid peroxidation. miR-21-3p increased the ferroptosis sensitivity by directly targeting thioredoxin reductase 1 (TXNRD1) to enhance lipid reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Furthermore, miR-21-3p overexpression in tumor synergized with anti-PD-1 antibody by promoting tumor cell ferroptosis. More importantly, miR-21-3p-loaded gold nanoparticles were constructed, and the systemic delivery of them increased the efficacy of anti-PD-1 antibody without prominent side effects in preclinical mice model. Ultimately, ATF3 was found to promote miR-21-3p transcription in IFN-γ-driven ferroptosis. Conclusions MiR-21–3 p upregulation contributes to IFN-γ-driven ferroptosis and synergizes with anti-PD-1 antibody. Nanoparticle delivery of miR-21–3 p is a promising therapeutic approach to increase immunotherapy efficacy without obvious systemic side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weinan Guo
- Department of Dermatology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zhenjie Wu
- Department of Bone and Soft Tissue Surgery, Guangxi Medical University Cancer Hospital, Nanning, Guangxi, China
| | - Jianru Chen
- Department of Dermatology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Sen Guo
- Department of Dermatology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Weiming You
- National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Biodiagnosis and Biotherapy, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Sijia Wang
- Department of Dermatology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jinyuan Ma
- Department of Dermatology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Huina Wang
- Department of Dermatology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiangxu Wang
- Department of Oncology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hao Wang
- Department of Dermatology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jingjing Ma
- Department of Dermatology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yuqi Yang
- Department of Dermatology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yangzi Tian
- Department of Dermatology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Qiong Shi
- Department of Dermatology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Tianwen Gao
- Department of Dermatology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiuli Yi
- Department of Dermatology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Chunying Li
- Department of Dermatology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
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12
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Siddika T, Heinemann IU, O'Donoghue P. Expanding codon size. eLife 2022; 11:78869. [PMID: 35543705 PMCID: PMC9094744 DOI: 10.7554/elife.78869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Engineering transfer RNAs to read codons consisting of four bases requires changes in tRNA that go beyond the anticodon sequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarana Siddika
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
| | - Ilka U Heinemann
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
| | - Patrick O'Donoghue
- Department of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
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13
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Wright DE, Panaseiko N, O'Donoghue P. Acetylated Thioredoxin Reductase 1 Resists Oxidative Inactivation. Front Chem 2021; 9:747236. [PMID: 34604175 PMCID: PMC8479162 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.747236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Thioredoxin Reductase 1 (TrxR1) is an enzyme that protects human cells against reactive oxygen species generated during oxidative stress or in response to chemotherapies. Acetylation of TrxR1 is associated with oxidative stress, but the function of TrxR1 acetylation in oxidizing conditions is unknown. Using genetic code expansion, we produced recombinant and site-specifically acetylated variants of TrxR1 that also contain the non-canonical amino acid, selenocysteine, which is essential for TrxR1 activity. We previously showed site-specific acetylation at three different lysine residues increases TrxR1 activity by reducing the levels of linked dimers and low activity TrxR1 tetramers. Here we use enzymological studies to show that acetylated TrxR1 is resistant to both oxidative inactivation and peroxide-induced multimer formation. To compare the effect of programmed acetylation at specific lysine residues to non-specific acetylation, we produced acetylated TrxR1 using aspirin as a model non-enzymatic acetyl donor. Mass spectrometry confirmed aspirin-induced acetylation at multiple lysine residues in TrxR1. In contrast to unmodified TrxR1, the non-specifically acetylated enzyme showed no loss of activity under increasing and strongly oxidating conditions. Our data suggest that both site-specific and general acetylation of TrxR1 regulate the enzyme’s ability to resist oxidative damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E Wright
- Departments of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Nikolaus Panaseiko
- Departments of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Patrick O'Donoghue
- Departments of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.,Departments of Chemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
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14
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Lacoursiere RE, Shaw GS. Acetylated Ubiquitin Modulates the Catalytic Activity of the E1 Enzyme Uba1. Biochemistry 2021; 60:1276-1285. [PMID: 33848125 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.1c00145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Ubiquitin (Ub) signaling requires the covalent passage of Ub among E1, E2, and E3 enzymes. The choice of E2 and E3 enzymes combined with multiple rounds of the cascade leads to the formation of polyubiquitin chains linked through any one of the seven lysines on Ub. The linkage type and length act as a signal to trigger important cellular processes such as protein degradation or the DNA damage response. Recently, proteomics studies have identified that Ub can be acetylated at six of its seven lysine residues under various cell stress conditions. To understand the potential differences in Ub signaling caused by acetylation, we synthesized all possible acetylated ubiquitin (acUb) variants and examined the E1-mediated formation of the corresponding E2∼acUb conjugates in vitro using kinetic methods. A Förster resonance energy transfer assay was optimized in which the Ub constructs were labeled with a CyPet fluorophore and the E2 UBE2D1 was labeled with a YPet fluorophore to monitor the formation of E2∼Ub conjugates. Our methods enable the detection of small differences that may otherwise be concealed in steady-state ubiquitination experiments. We determined that Ub, acetylated at K11, K27, K33, K48, or K63, has altered turnover numbers for E2∼Ub conjugate formation by the E1 enzyme Uba1. This work provides evidence that acetylation of Ub can alter the catalysis of ubiquitination early on in the pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gary S Shaw
- Department of Biochemistry, Western University, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
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15
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Poria DK, Sheshadri N, Balamurugan K, Sharan S, Sterneck E. The STAT3 inhibitor Stattic acts independently of STAT3 to decrease histone acetylation and modulate gene expression. J Biol Chem 2021; 296:100220. [PMID: 33839684 PMCID: PMC7948742 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra120.016645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is an important transcription factor involved in many physiological functions including embryonic development and immune responses and is often activated under pathological conditions such as cancer. Strategies to inactivate STAT3 are being pursued as potential anticancer therapies and have led to the identification of Stattic (6-nitrobenzo[b]thiophene-1,1-dioxide) as a "specific" STAT3 inhibitor that is often used to interrogate STAT3-mediated gene expression in vitro and in vivo. Here, we show that Stattic exerts many STAT3-independent effects on cancer cells, calling for reassessment of results previously ascribed to STAT3 functions. Studies of the STAT3-deficient prostate cancer cell line PC-3 (PC3) along with STAT3-proficient breast cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-231, SUM149) revealed that Stattic attenuated histone acetylation and neutralized effects of the histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor romidepsin. In PC3 cells, Stattic alone inhibited gene expression of CCL20 and CCL2, but activated expression of TNFA, CEBPD, SOX2, and MYC. In addition, we found that Stattic promoted autophagy and caused cell death. These data point to profound epigenetic effects of Stattic that are independent of its function as a STAT3 inhibitor. Our results demonstrate that Stattic directly or indirectly reduces histone acetylation and suggest reevaluation of Stattic and related compounds as polypharmacological agents through multipronged cytotoxic effects on cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipak K Poria
- Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Signaling, Center for Cancer Research (CCR), National Cancer Institute (NCI), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Namratha Sheshadri
- Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Signaling, Center for Cancer Research (CCR), National Cancer Institute (NCI), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Kuppusamy Balamurugan
- Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Signaling, Center for Cancer Research (CCR), National Cancer Institute (NCI), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Shikha Sharan
- Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Signaling, Center for Cancer Research (CCR), National Cancer Institute (NCI), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Esta Sterneck
- Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Signaling, Center for Cancer Research (CCR), National Cancer Institute (NCI), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Frederick, Maryland, USA.
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16
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Jaganjac M, Milkovic L, Sunjic SB, Zarkovic N. The NRF2, Thioredoxin, and Glutathione System in Tumorigenesis and Anticancer Therapies. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:E1151. [PMID: 33228209 PMCID: PMC7699519 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9111151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer remains an elusive, highly complex disease and a global burden. Constant change by acquired mutations and metabolic reprogramming contribute to the high inter- and intratumor heterogeneity of malignant cells, their selective growth advantage, and their resistance to anticancer therapies. In the modern era of integrative biomedicine, realizing that a personalized approach could benefit therapy treatments and patients' prognosis, we should focus on cancer-driving advantageous modifications. Namely, reactive oxygen species (ROS), known to act as regulators of cellular metabolism and growth, exhibit both negative and positive activities, as do antioxidants with potential anticancer effects. Such complexity of oxidative homeostasis is sometimes overseen in the case of studies evaluating the effects of potential anticancer antioxidants. While cancer cells often produce more ROS due to their increased growth-favoring demands, numerous conventional anticancer therapies exploit this feature to ensure selective cancer cell death triggered by excessive ROS levels, also causing serious side effects. The activation of the cellular NRF2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2 like 2) pathway and induction of cytoprotective genes accompanies an increase in ROS levels. A plethora of specific targets, including those involved in thioredoxin (TRX) and glutathione (GSH) systems, are activated by NRF2. In this paper, we briefly review preclinical research findings on the interrelated roles of the NRF2 pathway and TRX and GSH systems, with focus given to clinical findings and their relevance in carcinogenesis and anticancer treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Neven Zarkovic
- Laboratory for Oxidative Stress, Division of Molecular Medicine, Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Bijenicka 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (M.J.); (L.M.); (S.B.S.)
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17
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Lacoursiere RE, O’Donoghue P, Shaw GS. Programmed ubiquitin acetylation using genetic code expansion reveals altered ubiquitination patterns. FEBS Lett 2020; 594:1226-1234. [DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrick O’Donoghue
- Department of Biochemistry The University of Western Ontario London Canada
- Department of Chemistry The University of Western Ontario London Canada
| | - Gary S. Shaw
- Department of Biochemistry The University of Western Ontario London Canada
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18
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Wright DE, O'Donoghue P. The Molecular Architecture of Unnatural Amino Acid Translation Systems. Structure 2020; 27:1192-1194. [PMID: 31390545 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2019.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Expanding the genetic code using non-canonical amino acids has revolutionized synthetic biology. In a recent issue of Cell Chemical Biology, Yanagisawa et al. (2019) expanded our knowledge of orthogonal translation systems by presenting a tour de force structural characterization of multiple genetic code expansion systems based on pyrrolysyl-tRNA synthetase.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E Wright
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Patrick O'Donoghue
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada; Department of Chemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada.
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19
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Dikalov SI, Dikalova AE. Crosstalk Between Mitochondrial Hyperacetylation and Oxidative Stress in Vascular Dysfunction and Hypertension. Antioxid Redox Signal 2019; 31:710-721. [PMID: 30618267 PMCID: PMC6708267 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2018.7632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Significance: Vascular dysfunction plays a key role in the development of arteriosclerosis, heart disease, and hypertension, which causes one-third of deaths worldwide. Vascular oxidative stress and metabolic disorders contribute to vascular dysfunction, leading to impaired vasorelaxation, vascular hypertrophy, fibrosis, and aortic stiffening. Mitochondria are critical in the regulation of metabolic and antioxidant functions; therefore, mitochondria-targeted treatments could be beneficial. Recent Advances: Vascular dysfunction is crucial in hypertension pathophysiology and exhibits bidirectional relationship. Metabolic disorders and oxidative stress contribute to the pathogenesis of vascular dysfunction and hypertension, which are associated with mitochondrial impairment and hyperacetylation. Mitochondrial deacetylase Sirtuin 3 (Sirt3) is critical in the regulation of metabolic and antioxidant functions. Clinical studies show that cardiovascular disease risk factors reduce Sirt3 level and Sirt3 declines with age, paralleling the increased incidence of cardiovascular disease and hypertension. An imbalance between mitochondrial acetylation and reduced Sirt3 activity contributes to mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress. We propose that mitochondrial hyperacetylation drives a vicious cycle between metabolic disorders and mitochondrial oxidative stress, promoting vascular dysfunction and hypertension. Critical Issues: The mechanisms of mitochondrial dysfunction are still obscure in human hypertension. Mitochondrial hyperacetylation and oxidative stress contribute to mitochondrial dysfunction; however, regulation of mitochondrial acetylation, the role of GCN5L1 (acetyl-CoA-binding protein promoting acetyltransferase protein acetylation) acetyltransferase, Sirt3 deacetylase, and acetylation of specific proteins require further investigations. Future Directions: There is an urgent need to define molecular mechanisms and the pathophysiological role of mitochondrial hyperacetylation, identify novel pharmacological targets, and develop therapeutic approaches to reduce this phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey I Dikalov
- Department of Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Anna E Dikalova
- Department of Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
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20
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O'Donoghue P, Heinemann IU. Synthetic DNA and RNA Programming. Genes (Basel) 2019; 10:genes10070523. [PMID: 31336805 PMCID: PMC6678149 DOI: 10.3390/genes10070523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic biology is a broad and emerging discipline that capitalizes on recent advances in molecular biology, genetics, protein and RNA engineering as well as omics technologies. Together these technologies have transformed our ability to reveal the biology of the cell and the molecular basis of disease. This Special Issue on "Synthetic RNA and DNA Programming" features original research articles and reviews, highlighting novel aspects of basic molecular biology and the molecular mechanisms of disease that were uncovered by the application and development of novel synthetic biology-driven approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick O'Donoghue
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada.
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada.
| | - Ilka U Heinemann
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada.
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21
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Chen H, Venkat S, McGuire P, Gan Q, Fan C. Recent Development of Genetic Code Expansion for Posttranslational Modification Studies. Molecules 2018; 23:E1662. [PMID: 29986538 PMCID: PMC6100177 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23071662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Nowadays advanced mass spectrometry techniques make the identification of protein posttranslational modifications (PTMs) much easier than ever before. A series of proteomic studies have demonstrated that large numbers of proteins in cells are modified by phosphorylation, acetylation and many other types of PTMs. However, only limited studies have been performed to validate or characterize those identified modification targets, mostly because PTMs are very dynamic, undergoing large changes in different growth stages or conditions. To overcome this issue, the genetic code expansion strategy has been introduced into PTM studies to genetically incorporate modified amino acids directly into desired positions of target proteins. Without using modifying enzymes, the genetic code expansion strategy could generate homogeneously modified proteins, thus providing powerful tools for PTM studies. In this review, we summarized recent development of genetic code expansion in PTM studies for research groups in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Chen
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
| | - Sumana Venkat
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
| | - Paige McGuire
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
| | - Qinglei Gan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
| | - Chenguang Fan
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
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22
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick O’Donoghue
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Jiqiang Ling
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Dieter Söll
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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