microRNA-214 Governs Lung Cancer Growth and Metastasis by Targeting Carboxypeptidase-D

A thorough and current study of miR-214-related targets in cancer

Cancer is a complex genetic anomaly involving coding and non-coding transcript structural and expressive irregularities. A class of tiny non-coding RNAs known as microRNAs (miRNAs) regulates gene expression at the post-transcriptional level by binding only to messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Due to their capacity to target numerous genes, miRNAs have the potential to play a significant role in the development of tumors by controlling several biological processes, including angiogenesis, drug resistance, metastasis, apoptosis, proliferation, and drug resistance. According to several recent studies, miRNA-214 has been linked to the emergence and spread of tumors. The human genome's q24.3 arm contains the DNM3 gene, which is about 6 kb away and includes the microRNA-214. Its primary purpose was the induction of apoptosis in cancerous cells. The multifaceted and complex functions of miR-214 as a modulator in neoplastic conditions have been outlined in the current review.

Exosomal non-coding RNAs-mediated EGFR-TKIs resistance in NSCLC with EGFR mutation

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. The advent of epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKIs) has significantly improved survival rates of patients with EGFR-mutant non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, as with other antitumor drugs, resistance to EGFR-TKIs is inevitably develops over time. Exosomes, extracellular vesicles with a 30-150 nm diameter, have emerged as vital mediators of intercellular communication. Recent studies revealed that exosomes carry non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including circular RNA (circRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and long noncoding RNA (lncRNA), which contribute to the development of EGFR-TKIs resistance. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current research on exosomal ncRNAs mediating EGFR-TKIs resistance in EGFR-mutated NSCLC. In the future, detecting exosome ncRNAs can be used to monitor targeted therapy for NSCLC. Meanwhile, developing therapeutic regimens targeting these resistance mechanisms may provide additional clinical benefits to patients with EGFR-mutated NSCLC.

Rs3746444 T>C locus in miR-499 increases the susceptibility to hepatocellular carcinoma: A meta-analysis 14812 subjects

BACKGROUND

Recently, many investigations have suggested that the rs3746444 T>C locus in the microRNA (miR)-499 gene may contribute to the occurrence of cancer. However, reports on the association between rs3746444 and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are conflicting.

AIM

To further understand and explore the potential correlation between the single-nucleotide polymorphism of rs3746444 and the incidence of HCC.

METHODS

In this meta-analysis, we obtained electronic literature by searching the PubMed, Embase and Chinese BioMedical Disc databases (through May 20, 2022). All eligible case-control, prospective cohort or nested case-control studies with sufficient data for calculating the odds ratios with their 95% confidence intervals were included.

RESULTS

Ultimately, a total of 17 independent studies were included. We identified that rs3746444 was associated with the development of HCC (C vs T: P = 0.019 and CC/CT vs TT: P = 0.016). In Asian individuals, rs3746444 was associated with susceptibility to HCC (C vs T: P = 0.013 and CC/CT vs TT: P = 0.016). In addition, this study identified that the miR-499 rs3746444 locus was associated with susceptibility to HCC in the normal/healthy control subgroup (C vs T: P = 0.034 and CC/CT vs TT: P = 0.024).

CONCLUSION

In summary, this meta-analysis highlights that rs3746444 in the miR-499 gene is involved in the occurrence of HCC, especially in Asian individuals.

Research on Mechanism of miR-214 Packaged with Lipidosome Nanoparticles on Prompting the Apoptosis of Intestinal Cancer Through Regulating p53 Pathway

Our study aimed at studying mechanism of miR-214 packaged with lipidosome nanoparticles on prompting apoptosis of intestinal cancer through regulating p53 pathway. SW480 cells were divided into blank group, empty carrier group, agonist group and group with carrier and antagonist. The negative control group was set, and groups related to p53 pathway were set as agonist group, inhibitor group and group with antagonist and inhibitor. The effect of miR-214 packaged with lipidosome nanoparticles on proliferation and apoptosis of intestinal cancer cells and p53 pathway in intestinal cancer cells was observed. Expression level of miR-214 in group with carrier and antagonist was lower than in other groups. The proportion of active cells in the group with carrier and antagonist started to be reduced notably from the second day. There was no notable declining tendency active cells' proportion from other groups. The quantity of cell apoptosis in group with carrier and antagonist was higher than in the other groups. The expression level of cleaved Caspase-3 in the group with carrier and antagonist was notably higher than in the other groups. Moreover, expression of Bcl-2/Bax protein was reversed, while expression of p53 protein in the carrier and antagonist groups was notably higher than in the other groups. The antagonist of miR-214 packaged with lipidosome nanoparticles could target on p53 pathway. The activity of p53 pathway was reduced by miR-214, and expression of Bcl-2 was increased. The expressions levels of Bax and cleaved Caspase-3 were also reversed, and molecular mechanism was mainly related with restraining of p53 signal pathway.

Serum Carboxypeptidase N1 Serves as a Potential Biomarker Complementing CA15-3 for Breast Cancer

BACKGROUND

The incidence and mortality of breast cancer are increasing annually. Breast cancer seriously threatens women's health and quality of life. We aimed to measure the clinical value of CPN1, a new serum marker of breast cancer and to evaluate the efficacy of CPN1 in combination with CA15-3.

METHODS

Seventy samples of breast cancer with lymph node metastasis, seventy-three samples of nonmetastatic breast cancer and twenty-five samples of healthy human serum were collected. Serum CA15-3 concentration was determined by Roche Elecsys, and serum CPN1 concentration was determined by ELISA.

RESULTS

In breast cancer patients, serum CPN1 concentration was positively correlated with tumour size, clinical stage and CA15-3 concentration (r = 0.376, P<0.0001). ROC curve analysis showed that the optimal critical concentration of CPN1 for breast cancer diagnosis was 32.8pg/ml. The optimal critical concentration of CPN1 in the diagnosis of metastatic breast cancer was 66.121pg/ml. CPN1 has a greater diagnostic ability for breast cancer (AUC_CA15-3=0.702 vs. AUC_CPN1=0.886, P<0.0001) and metastatic breast cancer (AUC_CA15-3=0.629 vs. AUC_CPN1=0.887, P<0.0001) than CA15-3, and the combined detection of CA15-3 and CPN1 can improve the diagnostic efficiency for breast cancer (AUC_CA15-3+CPN1=0.916) and for distinguishing between metastatic and non-metastatic breast cancer (AUC_CA15-3+CPN1=0.895).

CONCLUSION

CPN1 can be used as a new tumour marker to diagnose and evaluate the invasion and metastasis of breast cancer. The combined detection of CPN1 and CA15-3 is more accurate and has a certain value in clinical application.

AGO2 promotes tumor progression in KRAS-driven mouse models of non-small cell lung cancer

Lung cancer is the deadliest malignancy in the United States. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for 85% of cases and is frequently driven by activating mutations in the gene encoding the KRAS GTPase (e.g., KRASG12D). Our previous work demonstrated that Argonaute 2 (AGO2)-a component of the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC)-physically interacts with RAS and promotes its downstream signaling. We therefore hypothesized that AGO2 could promote KRASG12D-dependent NSCLC in vivo. To test the hypothesis, we evaluated the impact of Ago2 knockout in the KPC (LSL-KrasG12D/+;p53f/f;Cre) mouse model of NSCLC. In KPC mice, intratracheal delivery of adenoviral Cre drives lung-specific expression of a stop-floxed KRASG12D allele and biallelic ablation of p53 Simultaneous biallelic ablation of floxed Ago2 inhibited KPC lung nodule growth while reducing proliferative index and improving pathological grade. We next applied the KPHetC model, in which the Clara cell-specific CCSP-driven Cre activates KRASG12D and ablates a single p53 allele. In these mice, Ago2 ablation also reduced tumor size and grade. In both models, Ago2 knockout inhibited ERK phosphorylation (pERK) in tumor cells, indicating impaired KRAS signaling. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) of KPC nodules and nodule-derived organoids demonstrated impaired canonical KRAS signaling with Ago2 ablation. Strikingly, accumulation of pERK in KPC organoids depended on physical interaction of AGO2 and KRAS. Taken together, our data demonstrate a pathogenic role for AGO2 in KRAS-dependent NSCLC. Given the prevalence of this malignancy and current difficulties in therapeutically targeting KRAS signaling, our work may have future translational relevance.

Investigation of IL-4, IL-10, and HVEM polymorphisms with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma: a case-control study involving 1929 participants

It is believed that an individual’s hereditary factors may be involved in the development of esophageal cancer (EC). The present study recruited 721 esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) cases and 1208 controls and explored the roles of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-10, and herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM) genes in contributing to ESCC risk. IL-4, IL-10, and HVEM SNPs were analyzed by employing an SNPscan method. After adjustment for body mass index (BMI), smoking, drinking, age and gender, we identified that the rs2070874 T>C locus in IL-4 gene decreased the risk of ESCC (CC vs. TT: P=0.008; CC vs. TT/TC: P=0.010). After a stratified analysis, we suggested that the IL-4 rs2070874 T>C variants might be a protective factor for ESCC in male, ≥63 years old, never smoking, drinking and BMI < 24 kg/m² subgroups. In addition, we identified that the rs2243263 G>C polymorphism in IL-4 gene was a risk factor for ESCC development in the BMI ≥ 24 kg/m² subgroup (GC vs. GG: P=0.030 and GC/CC vs. GG: P=0.018). We identified an association of the IL-4 rs2070874 T>C SNP with the decreased susceptibility of ESCC in stage I/II subgroup. Finally, we found an association of the IL-10 rs1800872 T>G SNP with a worse differentiation (TG vs. TT: P=0.048 and GG/TG vs. TT: P=0.032). In conclusion, the findings indicate a potential importance of IL-4 rs2070874 T>C, IL-4 rs2243263 G>C and IL-10 rs1800872 T>G SNPs in the development of ESCC.

Glutathione Synthesis in Cancer Cells

Tripeptide GSH is associated not only with the control and maintenance of redox cell homeostasis, but also with the processes of detoxification, proliferation, cell differentiation, and regulation of cell death. Disruptions in GSH synthesis and changes in the GSH/GSSG ratio are common for many pathological conditions, including malignant neoplasms. Numerous data indicate the importance of GSH and the GSH/GSSG ratio in the regulation of tumor cell viability, in the initiation of tumor development, progression, and drug resistance. However, control of the mechanism of GSH synthesis in malignant tumors remains poorly understood. This review discusses the features of GSH synthesis and its regulation in tumor cells. The role of GSH in the mechanisms of apoptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, and autophagy is considered.

MicroRNA-214 suppresses cell proliferation and migration and cell metabolism by targeting PDK2 and PHF6 in hepatocellular carcinoma

MiR-214 has been reported to act as a tumor suppressor or oncogene involved in various malignancies. However, the biological functions and molecular mechanisms of miR-214 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) still remain unclear. Previous studies suggest that pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 2 (PDK2) and plant homeodomain finger protein 6 (PHF6) may be involved in some tumor cell proliferation and migration. Therefore, we studied the relationship between PDK2/PHF6 and miR-214. The expression of miR-214, PDK2, and PHF6 was determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction in HCC tissues and cell lines. The Luciferase reporter assay was used to confirm the interaction between miR-214 and PDK2/PHF6. Cell proliferation, apoptosis, and migration were evaluated by cell counting kit-8 assay, flow cytometry, and transwell assay, respectively. The expressions levels of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and E-cadherin were detected via immunofluorescence assay. Here, we found that the expression of miR-214 decreased in HCC and was negatively correlated with PDK2 and PHF6. Moreover, PDK2 and PHF6 were the direct targets of miR-214 in HCC cells. Functional analysis showed that knockdown of PDK2 or PHF6 as well as miR-214 overexpression significantly suppressed cell proliferation and migration in HCC cells. Furthermore, we found that the suppression of cell proliferation and migration through PDK2 or PHF6 knockdown could be partially reversed by miR-214 down-regulation. Moreover, we demonstrated a decrease of mesenchymal cell marker α-SMA and increase of the epithelial marker E-cadherin after miR-214 overexpression, PDK2 knockdown or PHF6 knockdown, respectively, which also suggested that cell proliferation and migration were suppressed. Additionally, lactate and pyruvic acid production experiments confirmed miR-214 could suppress the HCC cell lactate and pyruvic acid levels by down-regulating PDK2/PHF6. In conclusion, MiR-214 may act as a tumor suppressor gene, presenting its suppressive role in cell proliferation and migration of HCC cells by targeting PDK2 and PHF6, and might provide a potential therapy target for patients with HCC.

miRNA Regulation of Glutathione Homeostasis in Cancer Initiation, Progression and Therapy Resistance

Glutathione (GSH) is the most abundant antioxidant that contributes to regulating the cellular production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) which, maintained at physiological levels, can exert a function of second messengers in living organisms. In fact, it has been demonstrated that moderate amounts of ROS can activate the signaling pathways involved in cell growth and proliferation, while high levels of ROS induce DNA damage leading to cancer development. Therefore, GSH is a crucial player in the maintenance of redox homeostasis and its metabolism has a role in tumor initiation, progression, and therapy resistance. Our recent studies demonstrated that neuroblastoma cells resistant to etoposide, a common chemotherapeutic drug, show a partial monoallelic deletion of the locus coding for miRNA 15a and 16-1 leading to a loss of these miRNAs and the activation of GSH-dependent responses. Therefore, the aim of this review is to highlight the role of specific miRNAs in the modulation of intracellular GSH levels in order to take into consideration the use of modulators of miRNA expression as a useful strategy to better sensitize tumors to current therapies.

miR-214 inhibits epithelial-mesenchymal transition of breast cancer cells via downregulation of RNF8

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of endogenous noncoding genes that regulate gene expression at the posttranscriptional level. In recent decades, miRNAs have been reported to play important roles in tumor growth and metastasis, while some reported functions of a specific miRNA in tumorigenesis are contradictory. In this study, we reevaluated the role of miR-214, which has been reported to serve as an oncogene or anti-oncogene in breast cancer metastasis. We found that miR-214 inhibited breast cancer via targeting RNF8, a newly identified regulator that could promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Specifically, the survival rate of breast cancer patients was positively correlated with miR-214 levels and negatively correlated with RNF8 expression. The overexpression of miR-214 inhibited cell proliferation and invasion of breast cancer, while suppression of miR-214 by chemically modified antagomir enhanced the proliferation and invasion of breast cancer cells. Furthermore, miR-214 could modulate the EMT process via downregulating RNF8. To our knowledge, this is the first report that reveals the role of the miR-214-RNF8 axis in EMT, and our results demonstrate a novel mechanism for miR-214 acting as a tumor suppressor through the regulation of EMT.

MicroRNA‑214 suppresses the viability, migration and invasion of human colorectal carcinoma cells via targeting transglutaminase 2

Colorectal carcinoma (CRC) is a common malignancy of the digestive tract. MicroRNA (miR)-214 is considered a key hub that controls tumor networks; therefore, the effects of miR-214 on CRC were examined and its target gene was investigated in this study. The expression levels of transglutaminase 2 (TGM2) and miR-214 were detected in CRC and adjacent normal tissues by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and western blotting, and luciferase activity was analyzed by dual luciferase reporter analysis. In addition, cell viability, invasion and migration were measured by Cell Counting kit-8 and Transwell assays, respectively. The expression levels of epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related proteins, and phosphoinositide-3 kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) signaling-associated factors were detected using RT-qPCR and western blotting. The results demonstrated that miR-214 expression was downregulated in CRC tissue, whereas TGM2 expression was upregulated. According to TargetScan prediction, miR-214 possesses a binding site to TGM2. In addition, transfection with miR-214 mimics markedly suppressed the viability of LoVo cells. miR-214 overexpression also inhibited cell invasion and migration by increasing E-cadherin and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2 expression, and decreasing matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9 expression. Furthermore, miR-214 downregulated phosphorylation of PI3K and Akt; however, the expression levels of total PI3K and Akt were not affected by miR-214. In conclusion, this study indicated that TGM2 was a target gene of miR-214, and a negative correlation between miR-214 and TGM2 expression was determined in CRC. Notably, miR-214 markedly suppressed the viability, invasion and migration of CRC cells, which may be associated with a downregulation in PI3K/Akt signaling. These findings suggested that miR-214 may be considered a novel target for the treatment of CRC.

Knockdown of differentiation antagonizing non-protein coding RNA exerts anti-tumor effect by up-regulating miR-214 in endometrial carcinoma

Differentiation antagonizing non-protein coding RNA (DANCR) is a valuable long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) that involves in the progress of various cancers. However, the functions of DANCR in endometrial carcinoma (EC) have not been validated. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the roles of DANCR in EC and explore the underlying mechanism. Expression patterns of DANCR in EC specimens and normal control specimens were determined using qRT-PCR. DANCR was knocked down in EC cell lines (AN3CA and HEC-1B) through transfection with small interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting DANCR (si-DANCR). Cell proliferation was examined using the cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay. Cell apoptosis was measured by flow cytometry. Online software starBase was used to predict the target gene of DANCR. Luciferase reporter assay was carried out to confirm the association between DANCR and the predicted target microRNA (miRNA). DANCR expression was up-regulated in EC tissues as compared to the normal control tissues. Knockdown of DANCR in AN3CA and HEC-1B cells markedly suppressed cell proliferation and induced cell apoptosis. miR-214 was found to be a target miRNA of DANCR and its expression was significantly decreased in EC tissues. Suppression of miR-214 abolished the effects of si-DANCR on cell proliferation and apoptosis in AN3CA and HEC-1B cells. DANCR played an important role in promoting tumorigenesis of EC via sponging miR-214. DANCR might serve as a therapeutic target for the treatment of EC.

Long noncoding RNA MIR31HG is activated by SP1 and promotes cell migration and invasion by sponging miR-214 in NSCLC

Long non-coding RNAs(lncRNAs) have been reported to play pivotal roles in various cancers. Recently, MIR31HG was proposed to be involved in tumor progression. However, its role in non small cell lung cancer(NSCLC) remains elusive. In this work, we found that SP1-induced MIR31HG was significantly upregulated in NSCLC tissues and cell lines. Moreover, Cox multivariate survival analysis revealed that high MIR31HG was an independent predictor of poor overall survival(OS). Functionally, knockdown of TINCR obviously suppressed NSCLC cells migration and invasion in vitro and inhibited NSCLC cells metastasis in vivo. Mechanistically, we identified MIR31HG could act as a miR-214 sponge using RNA pull down, luciferase reporter and RIP assays. Lastly, we verified that overexpression of MIR31HG effectively reverses miR-214-induced inhibition of NSCLC cells progression. Therefore, MIR31HG might serve as a promising prognostic marker and potential therapeutic target for NSCLC patients.

microRNA-214 suppresses the growth of cervical cancer cells by targeting EZH2

A number of studies have revealed the significance of microRNAs (miRs) in tumorigenesis. Cervical cancer (CC) is one of the most malignant cancer types and is associated with a poor overall survival rate. A previous study demonstrated a critical role of miR-214 in the development of multiple cancer types, but its role in CC remains elusive. In the current study, miR-214 was observed to be downregulated in CC tissues compared with the adjacent non-cancerous tissue. Overexpression of miR-214 reduced the proliferation of CC cells, whereas inhibiting its expression resulted in enhanced proliferation. Furthermore, Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) was demonstrated to be a direct target of miR-214 in CC. An MTT assay demonstrated that upregulating miR-214 expression or knocking down the expression of EZH2 impaired the proliferation of a CC cell line. Low expression of miR-214 was positively associated with tumor differentiation (P=0.037) and tumor stage (P=0.012). Notably, low expression of miR-214 predicted poor prognosis of patients with CC. Consequently, the results of the current study demonstrated that miR-214 functions as a tumor suppressor in CC and may be regarded as a potential therapeutic target in CC.

miR-214-3p promotes the proliferation, migration and invasion of osteosarcoma cells by targeting CADM1

Although osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common type of primary bone tumor in adolescents and young adults, its mechanism remains unclear. A previous study by the authors demonstrated that miR-214-3p was upregulated in OS patients. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the effect and molecular mechanism of miR-214-3p in OS cells. OS cell lines, U2OS and MNNG/HOS Cl#5, were transiently transfected with miR-214-3p mimics, a control mimic, miR-214-3p inhibitors and a control inhibitor. Subsequent assays revealed that elevated miR-214-3p promoted the proliferative, migratory and invasive abilities of OS cells, while the opposite effects were observed in cells that were transfected with miR-214-3p inhibitors. The interaction between miR-214-3p and cell adhesion molecule 1 (CADM1) 3'untranslated region (UTR) was verified by a dual luciferase assay, which indicated that the relative luciferase activity was decreased in 293T cells that were co-transfected with miR-214-3p mimic and psiCHECK2-CADM1-3'UTR compared with cells that were co-transfected with psiCHECK2-CADM1-3'UTR and control mimic. The knockdown of CADM1 using small-interfering RNA enhanced the proliferative, migratory and invasive abilities of OS cells. Furthermore, downregulated CADM1 expression increased the expression of phosphorylated P44/42 mitogen activated kinase (MAPK). In conclusion, miR-214-3p was able to directly target CADM1 and decrease its expression. This resulted in the activation of the P44/42 MAPK signaling pathway, and thereby promoted the proliferation, migration and invasion of OS cells.

Down-regulation of miR-214 inhibits proliferation and glycolysis in non-small-cell lung cancer cells via down-regulating the expression of hexokinase 2 and pyruvate kinase isozyme M2

Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that is enhanced in cancer cells. miR-214 plays an important role in cancer development and can modulate glycolysis. However, whether miR-214 can regulate glycolysis in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells has not yet been investigated. The expression levels of miR-214 in 7 NSCLC cell lines were measured by qRT-PCR. MTT assay was performed to evaluate the cell proliferation. Glucose consumption and lactate production were measured to assess the level of glycolysis. The expression of hexokinase 2 (HK2) and pyruvate kinase isozyme M2 (PKM2) was measured by qRT-PCR and western blot analysis. Luciferase reporter assay was carried out to confirm the target gene of miR-214. The levels of PTEN, p-Akt, Akt, p-mTOR, mTOR, p-S6K, and S6K were assessed by western blot analysis. Results showed that miR-214 levels were significantly increased in the 7 NSCLC cell lines compared with those in the human bronchial epithelial cell line. Down-regulation of miR-214 inhibited cell proliferation, glucose consumption, lactate production, and expression of HK2 and PKM2 in NSCLC cells. We also confirmed that miR-214 directly targeted PTEN and regulated the PTEN/Akt/mTOR pathway. Inhibition of the PTEN/Akt/mTOR pathway attenuated the effect of miR-214 mimics on glucose consumption, lactate production, and expression of HK2 and PKM2 in NSCLC cells. These results demonstrated that miR-214 down-regulation inhibited cell proliferation and glycolysis by down-regulating the expression of HK2 and PKM2 via the PTEN/Akt/mTOR pathway in NSCLC cells. Hence, our findings suggested that miR-214 might serve as a novel therapeutic target for NSCLC.

Discovery of Mechanism-Based Inactivators for Human Pancreatic Carboxypeptidase A from a Focused Synthetic Library

Metallocarboxypeptidases (MCPs) are involved in many biological processes such as fibrinolysis or inflammation, development, Alzheimer's disease, and various types of cancer. We describe the synthesis and kinetic characterization of a focused library of 22 thiirane- and oxirane-based potential mechanism-based inhibitors, which led to discovery of an inhibitor for the human pro-carboxypeptidase A1. Our structural analyses show that the thiirane-based small-molecule inhibitor penetrates the barrier of the pro-domain to bind within the active site. This binding leads to a chemical reaction that covalently modifies the catalytic Glu270. These results highlight the importance of combined structural, biophysical, and biochemical evaluation of inhibitors in design strategies for the development of spectroscopically nonsilent probes as effective beacons for in vitro, in cellulo, and/or in vivo localization in clinical and industrial applications.

MicroRNA miR-214 inhibits snakehead vesiculovirus replication by targeting the coding regions of viral N and P

Snakeheadvesiculovirus (SHVV), a new member of the family Rhabdoviridae, has caused enormous economic losses in snakehead fish culture during the past years in China; however, little is known about the molecular mechanisms of its pathogenicity. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that play important roles in virus infection. In this study, we identified that SHVV infection downregulated miR-214 in striped snakehead (SSN-1) cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Notably, transfecting SSN-1 cells with miR-214 mimic significantly inhibitedSHVV replication, whereas miR-214 inhibitor promoted it, suggesting that miR-214 acted as a negative regulator of SHVV replication. Our study further demonstrated that N and P of SHVV were the target genes of miR-214. Over-expression of P, but not N, inhibited IFN-α production in SHVV-infected cells, which could be restored by over-expression of miR-214. Taken together, these results suggest that miR-214 is downregulated during SHVV infection, and the downregulated miR-214 in turn increased N and P expression and decreased IFN-α production, thus facilitating SHVV replication. This study provides a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms on the pathogenesis of SHVV and a potential antiviral strategy against SHVV infection.