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Gast RK, Dittoe DK, Ricke SC. Salmonella in eggs and egg-laying chickens: pathways to effective control. Crit Rev Microbiol 2024; 50:39-63. [PMID: 36583653 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2022.2156772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Eggs contaminated with Salmonella have been internationally significant sources of human illness for several decades. Most egg-associated illness has been attributed to Salmonella serovar Enteritidis, but a few other serovars (notably S. Heidelberg and S. Typhimurium) are also sometimes implicated. The edible interior contents of eggs typically become contaminated with S. Enteritidis because the pathogen's unique virulence attributes enable it to colonize reproductive tissues in systemically infected laying hens. Other serovars are more commonly associated with surface contamination of eggshells. Both research and field experience have demonstrated that the most effective overall Salmonella control strategy in commercial laying flocks is the application of multiple interventions throughout the egg production cycle. At the preharvest (egg production) level, intervention options of demonstrated efficacy include vaccination and gastrointestinal colonization control via treatments such as prebiotics, probiotics, and bacteriophages, Effective environmental management of housing systems used for commercial laying flocks is also essential for minimizing opportunities for the introduction, transmission, and persistence of Salmonella in laying flocks. At the postharvest (egg processing and handling) level, careful regulation of egg storage temperatures is critical for limiting Salmonella multiplication inside the interior contents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard K Gast
- U.S. National Poultry Research Center, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Dana K Dittoe
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Meat Science and Animal Biologics Discovery Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Steven C Ricke
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Meat Science and Animal Biologics Discovery Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
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2
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Guillén S, Cebrián G. Relationship between iron bioavailability and Salmonella Typhimurium fitness in raw and pasteurized liquid whole egg. Food Microbiol 2022; 104:104008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2022.104008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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3
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Guillén S, Marcén M, Álvarez I, Mañas P, Cebrián G. Influence of the Initial Cell Number on the Growth Fitness of Salmonella Enteritidis in Raw and Pasteurized Liquid Whole Egg, Egg White, and Egg Yolk. Foods 2021; 10:1621. [PMID: 34359491 PMCID: PMC8305735 DOI: 10.3390/foods10071621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella growth in egg and egg products has been widely studied, but there are still some aspects that are not fully known. The objective of this work was to study the influence of the initial cell number on the growth fitness of Salmonella Enteritidis in raw and pasteurized egg products. Growth curves of five Salmonella Enteritidis strains in raw and pasteurized egg products, starting from different initial numbers, were obtained and fitted to the Baranyi and Roberts model. The results revealed that lower initial numbers led to longer lag phases (λ) and lower maximum specific growth rates (μmax) in raw liquid whole egg. Similar results were observed in raw egg white (except for one strain). Conversely, no influence (p > 0.05) of the initial concentration on Salmonella growth parameters in raw egg yolk was observed. On the other hand, no influence of the initial number of cells on Salmonella growth fitness in commercial pasteurized liquid whole egg was observed. The results obtained demonstrate that the disappearance of this initial-dose dependency phenomenon was dependent on the intensity of the thermal treatment applied. Finally, the influence of the initial number was, in general, lower in pasteurized than in raw egg white, but large differences among strains were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Guillermo Cebrián
- Departamento de Producción Animal y Ciencia de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto, Agroalimentario de Aragón—IA2—(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), 50013 Zaragoza, Spain; (S.G.); (M.M.); (I.Á.); (P.M.)
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4
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Song S, Zhu Y, Huang Z, Lin Y, Shi X, Guo H. Isolation, identification and thermal inactivation of dominant spoilage bacteria in egg curds. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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5
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Microbiota of eggs revealed by 16S rRNA-based sequencing: From raw materials produced by different suppliers to chilled pasteurized liquid products. Food Control 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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6
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Elias SDO, Alvarenga VO, Longhi DA, Sant'Ana ADS, Tondo EC. Modeling Growth Kinetic Parameters of Salmonella Enteritidis SE86 on Homemade Mayonnaise Under Isothermal and Nonisothermal Conditions. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2016; 13:462-7. [PMID: 26859536 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2015.2045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
During the last decade, a specific strain of Salmonella Enteritidis (named SE86) has been identified as the major etiological agent responsible for salmonellosis in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Southern Brazil, and the main food vehicle was homemade mayonnaise (HM). This study aimed to model the growth prediction of SE86 on HM under isothermal and nonisothermal conditions. SE86 was inoculated on HM and stored at 7, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 37°C. Growth curves were built by fitting data to the Baranyi's DMFit, generating r(2) values greater than 0.98 for primary models. Secondary model was fitted with Ratkowsky equation, generating r(2) and root mean square error values of 0.99 and 0.016, respectively. Also, the growth of SE86 under nonisothermal conditions simulating abuse temperature during preparation, storage, and serving of HM was studied. Experimental data showed that SE86 did not grow on HM at 7°C for 30 days. At 10°C, no growth was observed until approximately 18 h, and the infective dose (assumed as 10(6) CFU/g) was reached after 8.1 days. However, the same numbers of SE86 were attained after 6 hours at 37°C. Experimental data demonstrated shorter lag times than those generated by ComBase Predictive Models, suggesting that SE86 is very well adapted for growing on HM. SE86 stored under nonisothermal conditions increased population to reach about 10(6) CFU/g after approximately 30 hours of storage. In conclusion, the developed model can be used to predict the growth of SE86 on HM under various temperatures, and considering this pathogen, HM can be produced if safe eggs are used and HM is stored below 7°C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana de Oliveira Elias
- 1 Department of Food Sciences, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) , Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Verônica Ortiz Alvarenga
- 2 Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas , (UNICAMP) Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Daniel Angelo Longhi
- 3 Federal University of Parana (UFPR) , Campus Jandaia do Sul, Jandaia do Sul, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Anderson de Souza Sant'Ana
- 2 Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas , (UNICAMP) Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Cesar Tondo
- 1 Department of Food Sciences, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) , Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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7
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Sakha MZ, Fujikawa H. Growth characteristics of Salmonella enteritidis in pasteurized and unpasteurized liquid egg products. Biocontrol Sci 2013; 17:183-90. [PMID: 23269220 DOI: 10.4265/bio.17.183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Growth characteristics of a four-strain cocktail of Salmonella Enteritidis in commercial products of pasteurized and unpasteurized liquid whole egg were studied with a growth model developed by us. The unpasteurized product contained total bacteria at 10(7.3) CFU/g, but no Salmonella. When the products were spiked with Salmonella at various doses ranging from 10(1) to 10(4) CFU/g, growth curves of the pathogen at 24°C were well described with our model. Salmonella growth curves at constant temperatures from 8°C to 36°C in the two products were also well described with the model. The Baranyi model also described well most of the growth curves. The rate constants of growth for Salmonella at various constant temperatures were well described with the square root model. The maximum cell level, N(max) of Salmonella was constant at all temperatures in the pasteurized products, while a linear relationship between log N(max) and the temperature was observed in the unpasteurized ones. Salmonella growth in the unpasteurized product was highly suppressed in comparison with that in the pasteurized. This study also suggested the suitability of our model for application in the Salmonella growth analysis in pasteurized and unpasteurized liquid egg products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Zaher Sakha
- Department of Applied Veterinary Science, The Graduated School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University
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8
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Gast RK, Guraya R, Guard J. Salmonella enteritidis deposition in eggs after experimental infection of laying hens with different oral doses. J Food Prot 2013; 76:108-13. [PMID: 23317864 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-12-268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The continuing attribution of human Salmonella Enteritidis infections to internally contaminated eggs has necessitated the commitment of substantial public and private resources to Salmonella Enteritidis testing and control programs in commercial laying flocks. Cost-effective risk-reduction requires a detailed and comprehensive understanding of how Salmonella Enteritidis infections in hens result in deposition of the pathogen inside eggs. The present study sought to resolve some incompletely defined aspects of the relationship between Salmonella Enteritidis oral-exposure dose levels in experimentally infected laying hens and the frequency and location of subsequent egg contamination. In two trials, groups of specific-pathogen-free hens were experimentally inoculated with oral doses of 10(4), 10(6), or 10(8) CFU of a phage type 4 Salmonella Enteritidis strain. Eggs were collected 5 to 23 days postinoculation, and the yolk and albumen of each egg were cultured separately to detect Salmonella Enteritidis contamination. Larger oral doses of Salmonella Enteritidis administered to hens were associated with significant increases in the frequencies of both yolk and albumen contamination. Moreover, Salmonella Enteritidis was found in the albumen of a far-higher proportion of contaminated eggs from hens given the largest dose than from the other two groups. Salmonella Enteritidis contamination was detected in 0.7% of yolk and 0.2% of albumen samples after inoculation of hens with 10(4) CFU, 4.0% of yolk and 1.7% of albumen samples after inoculation with 10(6) CFU, and 6.5% of yolk and 10.8% of albumen samples after inoculation with 10(8) CFU. These results demonstrate that oral-exposure doses of Salmonella Enteritidis for laying hens can significantly affect both the frequency and location of deposition of this pathogen inside eggs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard K Gast
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Egg Safety and Quality Research Unit, Russell Research Center, 950 College Station Road, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA.
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9
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Rodrigues ECP, Souza MCL, Toledo SS, Barbosa CG, Reis EMF, Rodrigues DP, Lázaro NS. Effects of gamma irradiation on the viability and phenotypic characteristics of Salmonella Enteritidis inoculated into specific-pathogen-free eggs. J Food Prot 2011; 74:2031-8. [PMID: 22186042 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-11-086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this study was to determine the effects of various levels of gamma irradiation on the phenotypic characteristics of 20 strains of Salmonella Enteritidis inoculated separately into specific-pathogen-free shell eggs. Bacterial strains were inoculated into egg yolks and exposed to (60)Co radiation at doses of 0.49 to 5.0 kGy. The eggs were maintained at 25°C and analyzed for the presence of Salmonella on days 1, 2, 4, and 7, and the recovered Salmonella isolates were characterized biochemically. All strains were resistant to doses of 0.49, 0.54, 0.59, 0.8, and 1 kGy; colony counts were ≥10(5) CFU/ml of egg yolk except for one strain, which was detected at 96 h and at 7 days after irradiation at 1 kGy, with a population reduction of 2 log CFU/ml. For the other evaluated doses, 12 strains (60.0%) were resistant at 1.5 kGy and 7 strains (35.0%) were resistant at 3.0 kGy. Among all analyzed strains, 5.0 kGy was more effective for reducing and/or eliminating the inoculated bacteria; only two (10%) strains were resistant to this level of irradiation. Salmonella colony counts were significantly reduced (P < 0.01) with increasing doses from the day 1 to 7 of observation, when microbial growth peaked. Loss of mobility, lactose fermentation, citrate utilization, and hydrogen sulfide production occurred in some strains after irradiation independent of dose and postirradiation storage time. Increases in antibiotic susceptibility also occurred: seven strains became sensitive to β-lactams, two strains became sensitive to antifolates, and one strain each became sensitive to fluoroquinolone, phenicol, nitrofurans, tetracyclines, and aminoglycosides. The results indicate that up to 5.0 kGy of radiation applied to shell eggs inoculated with Salmonella Enteritidis at 4 log CFU per egg is not sufficient for complete elimination of this pathogen from this food matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth C P Rodrigues
- Biomanguinhos, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Av. Brasil, 4365-CEP 21040-900, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
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Goose-type lysozyme inhibitor (PliG) enhances survival of Escherichia coli in goose egg albumen. Appl Environ Microbiol 2011; 77:4697-9. [PMID: 21602367 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00427-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The goose-type lysozyme inhibitor PliG enhances the survival of Escherichia coli in goose but not in chicken egg white, which contains goose- and chicken-type lysozymes, respectively. These results indicate that both the type of host lysozyme and the type of bacterial lysozyme inhibitor may affect bacterium-host interactions.
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11
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Singh A, Korasapati NR, Juneja VK, Subbiah J, Froning G, Thippareddi H. Dynamic predictive model for the growth of Salmonella spp. in liquid whole egg. J Food Sci 2011; 76:M225-32. [PMID: 21535848 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02074.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED A dynamic model for the growth of Salmonella spp. in liquid whole egg (LWE) (approximately pH 7.8) under continuously varying temperature was developed. The model was validated using 2 (5 to 15 °C; 600 h and 10 to 40 °C; 52 h) sinusoidal, continuously varying temperature profiles. LWE adjusted to pH 7.8 was inoculated with approximately 2.5-3.0 log CFU/mL of Salmonella spp., and the growth data at several isothermal conditions (5, 7, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 37, 39, 41, 43, 45, and 47 °C) was collected. A primary model (Baranyi model) was fitted for each temperature growth data and corresponding maximum growth rates were estimated. Pseudo-R2 values were greater than 0.97 for primary models. Modified Ratkowsky model was used to fit the secondary model. The pseudo-R2 and root mean square error were 0.99 and 0.06 log CFU/mL, respectively, for the secondary model. A dynamic model for the prediction of Salmonella spp. growth under varying temperature conditions was developed using 4th-order Runge-Kutta method. The developed dynamic model was validated for 2 sinusoidal temperature profiles, 5 to 15 °C (for 600 h) and 10 to 40 °C (for 52 h) with corresponding root mean squared error values of 0.28 and 0.23 log CFU/mL, respectively, between predicted and observed Salmonella spp. populations. The developed dynamic model can be used to predict the growth of Salmonella spp. in LWE under varying temperature conditions. PRACTICAL APPLICATION Liquid egg and egg products are widely used in food processing and in restaurant operations. These products can be contaminated with Salmonella spp. during breaking and other unit operations during processing. The raw, liquid egg products are stored under refrigeration prior to pasteurization. However, process deviations can occur such as refrigeration failure, leading to temperature fluctuations above the required temperatures as specified in the critical limits within hazard analysis and critical control point plans for the operations. The processors are required to evaluate the potential growth of Salmonella spp. in such products before the product can be used, or further processed. Dynamic predictive models are excellent tools for regulators as well as the processing plant personnel to evaluate the microbiological safety of the product under such conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aikansh Singh
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
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Zhang W, Zheng JX, Xu GY. Toward better control of Salmonella contamination by taking advantage of the egg's self-defense system: a review. J Food Sci 2011; 76:R76-81. [PMID: 21535852 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02053.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Egg-associated salmonellosis is a major problem for food safety. It can be caused by vertical transmission (transovarian transmission) in hens and horizontal transmission though penetration. Despite a series of physical and chemical defense mechanisms naturally found in eggs, they cannot provide complete protection for them. Environmental hygiene, bacteria vectors such as birds, rodent, flies, and beetles along with feed and water contamination are the most frequently reported causes of Salmonella colonization in hens, and finally to eggs. In addition, inappropriate egg handling will cause eggs to lose their self-protection ability, thus resulting in the survival and multiplication of Salmonella in an egg's contents, which contributes to the horizontal dissemination. The routes of Salmonella contamination were discussed, and the effectiveness and shortcomings of different decontamination methods were evaluated in this review. Various studies on egg storage indicated that the low-temperature storage without temperature fluctuation was beneficial for the control of Salmonella. This review, based on an understanding of the stages of Salmonella transmission and an egg's self-protection mechanisms, highlights a comprehensive strategy toward Salmonella control in a process from egg production and handling to human consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
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Alabdeh M, Lechevalier V, Nau F, Gautier M, Cochet MF, Gonnet F, Jan S, Baron F. Role of incubation conditions and protein fraction on the antimicrobial activity of egg white against Salmonella Enteritidis and Escherichia coli. J Food Prot 2011; 74:24-31. [PMID: 21219759 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-10-157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The mechanism of egg white antimicrobial activity involves specific molecules and environmental factors. However, it is difficult to compare the data from the literature because of the use of various bacterial strains and incubation conditions. The aim of our study was to determine the effect of temperature, pH, inoculum size, and egg white protein concentration on egg white antimicrobial activity and to investigate the putative interactions among these factors by conducting a complete factorial design analysis. The behavior of Salmonella Enteritidis and Escherichia coli was studied after precultivation in tryptic soy broth and Luria-Bertani broth, respectively, using three different egg white protein concentrations (0, 10, and 100%), five temperatures (37, 40, 42, 45, and 48°C), two pHs (7.8 and 9.3), and six inoculum levels (3 to 8 log CFU/ml). The essential role of temperature was identified. An inverse relationship was observed between bacterial growth and an increase in temperature. The role of egg white proteins was clearly demonstrated. In the absence of egg white proteins, bacterial growth occurred under most incubation conditions, whereas the presence of 10 and 100% protein produced bacteriostatic or bactericidal effects. The interaction between temperature and protein concentration was significant. At the highest tested temperatures, proteins were less involved in the bactericidal effect. Bacterial destruction was higher at pH 9.3 than at pH 7.8. Under our experimental conditions, Salmonella Enteritidis was more resistant to inactivation by egg white than was E. coli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Alabdeh
- AGROCAMPUS Ouest, UMR1253 Science et Technologie du Lait et de l'Œuf, F-35042 Rennes, France
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Gast RK, Guraya R, Guard J, Holt PS. Multiplication of Salmonella enteritidis in egg yolks after inoculation outside, on, and inside vitelline membranes and storage at different temperatures. J Food Prot 2010; 73:1902-6. [PMID: 21067679 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x-73.10.1902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Prompt refrigeration to restrict bacterial growth is important for reducing eggborne transmission of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis (SE). The nutrient-rich yolk interior is a relatively infrequent location for initial SE deposition in eggs, but migration across the vitelline membrane can result in rapid bacterial multiplication during storage at warm temperatures. The objective of the present study was to measure the multiplication of SE in yolks after introduction at three different locations and subsequent storage at a range of temperatures. Using an in vitro egg contamination model, approximately 100 CFU of SE was inoculated either inside yolks, onto the exterior surface of vitelline membranes, or into the adjacent albumen. After storage of samples from each inoculation group at 10, 15, 20, and 25°C for 24 h, SE was enumerated in yolks. For all three inoculation locations, the final SE levels in yolks increased significantly with increasing storage temperatures. At all storage temperatures, significant differences in SE multiplication were observed between inoculation sites (yolk inoculation>vitelline membrane inoculation>albumen inoculation). At 25°C, final log concentrations of 7.759 CFU of SE per ml (yolk inoculation), 2.014 CFU/ml (vitelline membrane inoculation), and 0.757 CFU/ml (albumen inoculation) were attained in yolks after storage. These results demonstrate that, even when the initial site of SE deposition is outside the egg yolk, substantial multiplication supported by yolk nutrients can occur during the first day of storage and the risk of bacterial growth increases at higher ambient storage temperatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard K Gast
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Egg Safety and Quality Research Unit, Russell Research Center, 950 College Station Road, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA.
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