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Burtscher J, Pasha Q, Chanana N, Millet GP, Burtscher M, Strasser B. Immune consequences of exercise in hypoxia: A narrative review. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2024; 13:297-310. [PMID: 37734549 PMCID: PMC11116970 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2023.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Immune outcomes are key mediators of many health benefits of exercise and are determined by exercise type, dose (frequency/duration, intensity), and individual characteristics. Similarly, reduced availability of ambient oxygen (hypoxia) modulates immune functions depending on the hypoxic dose and the individual capacity to respond to hypoxia. How combined exercise and hypoxia (e.g., high-altitude training) sculpts immune responses is not well understood, although such combinations are becoming increasingly popular. Therefore, in this paper, we summarize the impact on immune responses of exercise and of hypoxia, both independently and together, with a focus on specialized cells in the innate and adaptive immune system. We review the regulation of the immune system by tissue oxygen levels and the overlapping and distinct immune responses related to exercise and hypoxia, then we discuss how they may be modulated by nutritional strategies. Mitochondrial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory mechanisms underlie many of the adaptations that can lead to improved cellular metabolism, resilience, and overall immune functions by regulating the survival, differentiation, activation, and migration of immune cells. This review shows that exercise and hypoxia can impair or complement/synergize with each other while regulating immune system functions. Appropriate acclimatization, training, and nutritional strategies can be used to avoid risks and tap into the synergistic potentials of the poorly studied immune consequences of exercising in a hypoxic state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Burtscher
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Qadar Pasha
- Institute of Hypoxia Research, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Neha Chanana
- Department of Biochemistry, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi 110062, India
| | - Grégoire P Millet
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Martin Burtscher
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck 6020, Austria.
| | - Barbara Strasser
- Faculty of Medicine, Sigmund Freud Private University, Vienna 1020, Austria; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Rehabilitation Research, Vienna 1100, Austria
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Haugen T, Sandbakk Ø, Seiler S, Tønnessen E. The Training Characteristics of World-Class Distance Runners: An Integration of Scientific Literature and Results-Proven Practice. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2022; 8:46. [PMID: 35362850 PMCID: PMC8975965 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-022-00438-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In this review we integrate the scientific literature and results-proven practice and outline a novel framework for understanding the training and development of elite long-distance performance. Herein, we describe how fundamental training characteristics and well-known training principles are applied. World-leading track runners (i.e., 5000 and 10,000 m) and marathon specialists participate in 9 ± 3 and 6 ± 2 (mean ± SD) annual competitions, respectively. The weekly running distance in the mid-preparation period is in the range 160–220 km for marathoners and 130–190 km for track runners. These differences are mainly explained by more running kilometers on each session for marathon runners. Both groups perform 11–14 sessions per week, and ≥ 80% of the total running volume is performed at low intensity throughout the training year. The training intensity distribution vary across mesocycles and differ between marathon and track runners, but common for both groups is that volume of race-pace running increases as the main competition approaches. The tapering process starts 7–10 days prior to the main competition. While the African runners live and train at high altitude (2000–2500 m above sea level) most of the year, most lowland athletes apply relatively long altitude camps during the preparation period. Overall, this review offers unique insights into the training characteristics of world-class distance runners by integrating scientific literature and results-proven practice, providing a point of departure for future studies related to the training and development in the Olympic long-distance events.
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Breda FL, Manchado-Gobatto FB, de Barros Sousa FA, Beck WR, Pinto A, Papoti M, Scariot PPM, Gobatto CA. Complex networks analysis reinforces centrality hematological role on aerobic-anaerobic performances of the Brazilian Paralympic endurance team after altitude training. Sci Rep 2022; 12:1148. [PMID: 35064131 PMCID: PMC8782909 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-04823-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the 30-days altitude training (2500 m, LHTH-live and training high) on hematological responses and aerobic–anaerobic performances parameters of high-level Paralympic athletes. Aerobic capacity was assessed by 3000 m run, and anaerobic variables (velocity, force and mechanical power) by a maximal 30-s semi-tethered running test (AO30). These assessments were carried out at low altitude before (PRE) and after LHTH (5–6 and 15–16 days, POST1 and POST2, respectively). During LHTH, hematological analyzes were performed on days 1, 12, 20 and 30. After LHTH, aerobic performance decreased 1.7% in POST1, but showed an amazing increase in POST2 (15.4 s reduction in the 3000 m test, 2.8%). Regarding anaerobic parameters, athletes showed a reduction in velocity, force and power in POST1, but velocity and power returned to their initial conditions in POST2. In addition, all participants had higher hemoglobin (Hb) values at the end of LHTH (30 days), but at POST2 these results were close to those of PRE. The centrality metrics obtained by complex networks (pondered degree, pagerank and betweenness) in the PRE and POST2 scenarios highlighted hemoglobin, hematocrit (Hct) and minimum force, velocity and power, suggesting these variables on the way to increasing endurance performance. The Jaccard’s distance metrics showed dissimilarity between the PRE and POST2 graphs, and Hb and Hct as more prominent nodes for all centrality metrics. These results indicate that adaptive process from LHTH was highlighted by the complex networks, which can help understanding the better aerobic performance at low altitude after 16 days in Paralympic athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Leandro Breda
- Laboratory of Applied Sport Physiology, School of Applied Sciences, University of Campinas, Rua Pedro Zaccaria, 1.300, Jardim Santa Luíza, Limeira, São Paulo, 13484-350, Brazil
| | - Fúlvia Barros Manchado-Gobatto
- Laboratory of Applied Sport Physiology, School of Applied Sciences, University of Campinas, Rua Pedro Zaccaria, 1.300, Jardim Santa Luíza, Limeira, São Paulo, 13484-350, Brazil
| | - Filipe Antônio de Barros Sousa
- Laboratory of Applied Sport Physiology, School of Applied Sciences, University of Campinas, Rua Pedro Zaccaria, 1.300, Jardim Santa Luíza, Limeira, São Paulo, 13484-350, Brazil
| | - Wladimir Rafael Beck
- Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology and Physical Exercise, Department of Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Allan Pinto
- School of Physical Education, University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil.,Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory, Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Papoti
- School of Physical Education and Sport of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Pedro Paulo Menezes Scariot
- Laboratory of Applied Sport Physiology, School of Applied Sciences, University of Campinas, Rua Pedro Zaccaria, 1.300, Jardim Santa Luíza, Limeira, São Paulo, 13484-350, Brazil
| | - Claudio Alexandre Gobatto
- Laboratory of Applied Sport Physiology, School of Applied Sciences, University of Campinas, Rua Pedro Zaccaria, 1.300, Jardim Santa Luíza, Limeira, São Paulo, 13484-350, Brazil.
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Koivisto-Mørk AE, Svendsen IS, Skattebo Ø, Hallén J, Paulsen G. Impact of baseline serum ferritin and supplemental iron on altitude-induced hemoglobin mass response in elite athletes. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2021; 31:1764-1773. [PMID: 33908091 DOI: 10.1111/sms.13982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The present study explored the impact of pre-altitude serum (s)-ferritin and iron supplementation on changes in hemoglobin mass (ΔHbmass) following altitude training. Measures of Hbmass and s-ferritin from 107 altitude sojourns (9-28 days at 1800-2500 m) with world-class endurance athletes (males n = 41, females n = 25) were analyzed together with iron supplementation and self-reported illness. Altitude sojourns with a hypoxic dose [median (range)] of 1169 (912) km·h increased Hbmass (mean ± SD) 36 ± 38 g (3.7 ± 3.7%, p < 0.001) and decreased s-ferritin -11 (190) µg·L-1 (p = 0.001). Iron supplements [27 (191) mg·day-1 ] were used at 45 sojourns (42%), while only 11 sojourns (10%) were commenced with s-ferritin <35 µg/L. Hbmass increased by 4.6 ± 3.7%, 3.4 ± 3.3%, 4.2 ± 4.3%, and 2.9 ± 3.4% with pre-altitude s-ferritin ≤35 µg·L-1 , 36-50 µg·L-1 , 51-100 µg·L-1 , and >100 µg·L-1 , respectively, with no group difference (p = 0.400). Hbmass increased by 4.1 ± 3.9%, 3.0 ± 3.0% and 3.7 ± 4.7% without, ≤50 mg·day-1 or >50 mg·day-1 supplemental iron, respectively (p = 0.399). Linear mixed model analysis revealed no interaction between pre-altitude s-ferritin and iron supplementation on ΔHbmass (p = 0.906). However, each 100 km·h increase in hypoxic dose augmented ΔHbmass by an additional 0.4% (95% CI: 0.1-0.7%; p = 0.012), while each 1 g·kg-1 higher pre-altitude Hbmass reduced ΔHbmass by -1% (-1.6 to -0.5; p < 0.001), and illness lowered ΔHbmass by -5.7% (-8.3 to -3.1%; p < 0.001). In conclusion, pre-altitude s-ferritin or iron supplementation were not related to the altitude-induced increase in Hbmass (3.7%) in world-class endurance athletes with clinically normal iron stores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anu Elisa Koivisto-Mørk
- Norwegian Olympic Sports Centre, Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ida Siobhan Svendsen
- Norwegian Olympic Sports Centre, Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports, Oslo, Norway
| | - Øyvind Skattebo
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jostein Hallén
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Gøran Paulsen
- Norwegian Olympic Sports Centre, Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
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[Into thin air - Altitude training and hypoxic conditioning: From athlete to patient]. Rev Mal Respir 2021; 38:404-417. [PMID: 33722445 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmr.2021.02.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Hypoxic exposure should be considered as a continuum, the effects of which depend on the dose and individual response to hypoxia. Hypoxic conditioning (HC) represents an innovative and promising strategy, ranging from improved human performance to therapeutic applications. STATE OF THE ART With the aim of improving sports performance, the effectiveness of hypoxic exposure, whether natural or simulated, is difficult to demonstrate because of the large variability of the protocols used. In therapeutics, the benefits of HC are described in many pathological conditions such as obesity or cardiovascular pathologies. If the HC benefits from a strong preclinical rationale, its application to humans remains limited. PERSPECTIVES Advances in training and acclimation will require greater personalization and precise periodization of hypoxic exposures. For patients, the harmonization of HC protocols, the identification of biomarkers and the development and subsequent validation of devices allowing a precise control of the hypoxic stimulus are necessary steps for the development of HC. CONCLUSIONS From the athlete to the patient, HC represents an innovative and promising field of research, ranging from the improvement of human performance to the prevention and treatment of certain pathologies.
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The effects of normoxic endurance exercise on erythropoietin (EPO) production and the impact of selective β 1 and non-selective β 1 + β 2 adrenergic receptor blockade. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 121:1499-1511. [PMID: 33646423 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-020-04558-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Habitual endurance exercise results in increased erythropoiesis, which is primarily controlled by erythropoietin (EPO), yet studies demonstrating upregulation of EPO via a single bout of endurance exercise have been equivocal. This study compares the acute EPO response to 30 min of high versus 90 min of moderate-intensity endurance exercise and whether that response can be upregulated via selective adrenergic receptor blockade. METHODS Using a counterbalanced, cross-over design, fifteen participants (age 28 ± 8) completed two bouts of running (30-min, high intensity vs 90-min, moderate intensity) matched for overall training stress. A separate cohort of fourteen participants (age 31 ± 6) completed three bouts of 30-min high-intensity cycling after ingesting the preferential β1-adrenergic receptor (AR) antagonist bisoprolol, the non-preferential β1 + β2 antagonist nadolol or placebo. Venous blood was collected before, during, and after exercise, and serum EPO levels were determined by ELISA. RESULTS No detectable EPO response was observed during or after high intensity running, however, in the moderate-intensity trial EPO was significantly elevated at both during-exercise timepoints (+ 6.8% ± 2.3% at 15 min and + 8.7% ± 2.2% at 60 min). No significant change in EPO was observed post-cycling or between the trials involving βAR blockade. CONCLUSION Neither training mode (running or cycling), nor beta-blockade significantly influenced the EPO response to 30 min of high-intensity exercise, however, 90 min of moderate-intensity running elevated EPO during exercise, returning to baseline immediately post-exercise. Identifying the optimal mode, duration and intensity required to evoke an EPO response to exercise may help tailor exercise prescriptions designed to maximize EPO response for both performance and clinical applications.
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Neumann G, Hottenrott K, Hottenrott L. Der Eisenstoffwechsel und seine Bedeutung für das Höhentraining. GERMAN JOURNAL OF EXERCISE AND SPORT RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12662-021-00707-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
ZusammenfassungEin Eisenmangel und eine katabole Stoffwechsellage behindern die Zunahme des Gesamthämoglobins und damit einen Anstieg der Sauerstofftransportkapazität, sodass die Wirksamkeit des Höhentrainings herabgesetzt ist. Die Eisenhomöostase wird sehr fein durch das hepatische Hormon Hepcidin (HEPC) kontrolliert, welches die Eisenaufnahmefähigkeit der Darmzellen über ein spezielles Protein, dem Ferroportin, kontrolliert. Unter Hypoxie stimuliert das Protein HIF-1 α die Freisetzung des Erythropoitins (EPO). Unzureichende Eisenspeicher und/oder eine Vitamin-B12-Unterversorgung bei Athleten, besonders bei jungen Frauen, sind Wochen vor einem Höhentraining durch eine orale Eisen- und/oder Vitamin-B12-Substitution unter ärztlicher Kontrolle, aufzufüllen. Voraussetzung für eine leistungsfördernde Wirkung des Höhentrainings ist ein mehrmaliger Aufenthalt in mittleren Höhen von 1700 m bis 3000 m. Als Aufenthaltsdauer werden 350 h bis 500 h oder zwei bis drei Wochen empfohlen. Mangelnde Eisenverfügbarkeit und ein Energiedefizit können die Wirksamkeit des Höhentrainings negativ beeinflussen. Liegt aus medizinischer Sicht eine Eisenunterversorgung vor, dann wird zu einer oralen Supplementation vor und während des Höhentrainings geraten. Bei normaler Eisenverfügbarkeit führt die gesteigerte Hämatopoese durch EPO zur Zunahme des Gesamthämoglobins. Die Wirkung des hypoxieinduzierten Hämoglobinanstiegs ist nach dem Höhentraining auf drei bis vier Wochen begrenzt.
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Breenfeldt Andersen A, Bejder J, Bonne T, Olsen NV, Nordsborg N. Repeated Wingate sprints is a feasible high-quality training strategy in moderate hypoxia. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242439. [PMID: 33186393 PMCID: PMC7665825 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Sprint-interval training (SIT) is efficient at improving maximal aerobic capacity and anaerobic fitness at sea-level and may be a feasible training strategy at altitude. Here, it was evaluated if SIT intensity can be maintained in mild to moderate hypoxia. It was hypothesized that 6 x 30 s Wingate sprint performance with 2 min active rest between sprints can be performed in hypoxic conditions corresponding to ~3,000 m of altitude without reducing mean power output (MPO). In a single-blinded, randomized crossover design, ten highly-trained male endurance athletes with a maximal oxygen uptake ([Formula: see text]O2max) of 68 ± 5 mL O2 × min-1 × kg-1 completed 6 x 30 s all-out Wingate cycling sprints separated by two-minute active recovery on four separate days in a hypobaric chamber. The ambient pressure within the chamber on each experimental day was 772 mmHg (~0 m), 679 mmHg (~915 m), 585 mmHg (~ 2,150 m), and 522 mmHg (~3,050 m), respectively. MPO was not different at sea-level and up to ~2,150 m (~1% and ~3% non-significant decrements at ~915 and ~2,150 m, respectively), whereas MPO was ~5% lower (P<0.05) at ~3,050 m. Temporal differences between altitudes was not different for peak power output (PPO), despite a main effect of altitude. In conclusion, repeated Wingate exercise can be completed by highly-trained athletes at altitudes up to ~2,150 m without compromising MPO or PPO. In contrast, MPO was compromised in hypobaric hypoxia corresponding to ~3,050 m. Thus, SIT may be an efficient strategy for athletes sojourning to moderate altitude and aiming to maintain training quality.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jacob Bejder
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thomas Bonne
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Niels Vidiendal Olsen
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Neuroanesteshia, The Neuroscience Center, Copenhagen University Hospital (Rigshospitalet), Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Nikolai Nordsborg
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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MILLET GRÉGOIREP, BROCHERIE FRANCK. Hypoxic Training Is Beneficial in Elite Athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2020; 52:515-518. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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10
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Saxer S, Schneider SR, Appenzeller P, Bader PR, Lichtblau M, Furian M, Sheraliev U, Estebesova B, Emilov B, Sooronbaev T, Bloch KE, Ulrich S. Asthma rehabilitation at high vs. low altitude: randomized parallel-group trial. BMC Pulm Med 2019; 19:134. [PMID: 31340793 PMCID: PMC6657156 DOI: 10.1186/s12890-019-0890-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background To investigate the effect of asthma rehabilitation at high altitude (3100 m, HA) compared to low altitude (760 m, LA). Methods For this randomized parallel-group trial insufficiently controlled asthmatics (Asthma Control Questionnaire (ACQ) > 0.75) were randomly assigned to 3-week in-hospital rehabilitation comprising education, physical-&breathing-exercises at LA or HA. Co-primary outcomes assessed at 760 m were between group changes in peak expiratory flow (PEF)-variability, and ACQ) from baseline to end-rehabilitation and 3 months thereafter. Results 50 asthmatics were randomized [median (quartiles) LA: ACQ 2.7(1.7;3.2), PEF-variability 19%(14;33); HA: ACQ 2.0(1.6;3.0), PEF-variability 17%(12;32)]. The LA-group improved PEF-variability by median(95%CI) -7%(− 14 to 0, p = 0.033), ACQ − 1.4(− 2.2 to − 0.9, p < 0.001), and after 3 months by − 3%(− 18 to 2, p = 0.103) and − 0.9(− 1.3 to − 0.3, p = 0.002). The HA-group improved PEF-variability by − 10%(− 21 to − 3, p = 0.004), ACQ − 1.1(− 1.3 to − 0.7, p < 0.001), and after 3 months by − 9%(− 10 to − 3, p = 0.003) and − 0.2(− 0.9 to 0.4, p = 0.177). The additive effect of HA vs. LA directly after the rehabilitation on PEF-variability was − 6%(− 14 to 2), on ACQ 0.3(− 0.4 to 1.1) and after 3 months − 5%(− 14 to 5) respectively 0.4(− 0.4 to 1.1), all p = NS. Conclusion Asthma rehabilitation is highly effective in improving asthma control in terms of PEF-variability and symptoms, both at LA and HA similarly. Trial registration Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT02741583, Registered April 18, 2016. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12890-019-0890-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Saxer
- Department of Pulmonology, UniversityHospital Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, CH-8091 , Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Health Sciences & Health Policy, University of Lucerne, Lucerne, Switzerland
| | - Simon R Schneider
- Department of Pulmonology, UniversityHospital Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, CH-8091 , Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Paula Appenzeller
- Department of Pulmonology, UniversityHospital Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, CH-8091 , Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Patrick R Bader
- Department of Pulmonology, UniversityHospital Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, CH-8091 , Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mona Lichtblau
- Department of Pulmonology, UniversityHospital Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, CH-8091 , Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Furian
- Department of Pulmonology, UniversityHospital Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, CH-8091 , Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ulan Sheraliev
- National Center for Cardiology and Internal Medicine, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
| | - Bermet Estebesova
- National Center for Cardiology and Internal Medicine, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
| | - Berik Emilov
- National Center for Cardiology and Internal Medicine, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
| | - Talant Sooronbaev
- National Center for Cardiology and Internal Medicine, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
| | - Konrad E Bloch
- Department of Pulmonology, UniversityHospital Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, CH-8091 , Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Silvia Ulrich
- Department of Pulmonology, UniversityHospital Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, CH-8091 , Zurich, Switzerland.
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Iron considerations for the athlete: a narrative review. Eur J Appl Physiol 2019; 119:1463-1478. [PMID: 31055680 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04157-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Iron plays a significant role in the body, and is specifically important to athletes, since it is a dominant feature in processes such as oxygen transport and energy metabolism. Despite its importance, athlete populations, especially females and endurance athletes, are commonly diagnosed with iron deficiency, suggesting an association between sport performance and iron regulation. Although iron deficiency is most common in female athletes (~ 15-35% athlete cohorts deficient), approximately 5-11% of male athlete cohorts also present with this issue. Furthermore, interest has grown in the mechanisms that influence iron absorption in athletes over the last decade, with the link between iron regulation and exercise becoming a research focus. Specifically, exercise-induced increases in the master iron regulatory hormone, hepcidin, has been highlighted as a contributing factor towards altered iron metabolism in athletes. To date, a plethora of research has been conducted, including investigation into the impact that sex hormones, diet (e.g. macronutrient manipulation), training and environmental stress (e.g. hypoxia due to altitude training) have on an athlete's iron status, with numerous recommendations proposed for consideration. This review summarises the current state of research with respect to the aforementioned factors, drawing conclusions and recommendations for future work.
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12
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Burtscher M, Niedermeier M, Burtscher J, Pesta D, Suchy J, Strasser B. Preparation for Endurance Competitions at Altitude: Physiological, Psychological, Dietary and Coaching Aspects. A Narrative Review. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1504. [PMID: 30425646 PMCID: PMC6218926 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
It was the Summer Olympic Games 1968 held in Mexico City (2,300 m) that required scientists and coaches to cope with the expected decline of performance in endurance athletes and to establish optimal preparation programs for competing at altitude. From that period until now many different recommendations for altitude acclimatization in advance of an altitude competition were proposed, ranging from several hours to several weeks. Those recommendations are mostly based on the separate consideration of the physiology of acclimatization, psychological issues, performance changes, logistical or individual aspects, but there is no review considering all these aspects in their entirety. Therefore, the present work primarily focusses on the period of altitude sojourn prior to the competition at altitude based on physiological and psychological aspects complemented by nutritional and sports practical considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Burtscher
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.,Austrian Society for Alpine and Mountain Medicine, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Martin Niedermeier
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Johannes Burtscher
- Laboratory of Molecular and Chemical Biology of Neurodegeneration, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Dominik Pesta
- Institute for Clinical Diabetology, German Diabetes Center, Leibniz Institute for Diabetes Research at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.,German Center for Diabetes Research, München-Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Jiri Suchy
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Barbara Strasser
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany.,Medical School, Sigmund Freud University, Vienna, Austria
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Turner G, Fudge BW, Pringle JSM, Maxwell NS, Richardson AJ. Altitude training in endurance running: perceptions of elite athletes and support staff. J Sports Sci 2018; 37:163-172. [PMID: 29932816 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2018.1488383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
This study sought to establish perceptions of elite endurance athletes on the role and worth of altitude training. Elite British endurance runners were surveyed to identify the altitude and hypoxic training methods utilised, along with reasons for use, and any situational, cultural and behaviour factors influencing these. Prior to the 2012 Olympics Games, 39 athletes and 20 support staff (coaches/practitioners) completed an internet-based survey to establish differences between current practices and the accepted "best-practice". Almost all of the athletes (98%) and support staff (95%) surveyed had utilised altitude and hypoxic training, or had advised it to athletes. 75% of athletes believed altitude and hypoxia to be a "very important" factor in their training regime, with 50% of support staff believing the same. Athletes and support staff were in agreement of the methods of altitude training utilised (i.e. 'hypoxic dose' and strategy), with camps lasting 3-4 weeks at 1,500-2,500 m being the most popular. Athletes and support staff are utilising altitude and hypoxic training methods in a manner agreeing with research-based suggestions. The survey identified a number of specific challenges and priorities, which could provide scope to optimise future altitude training methods for endurance performance in these elite groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth Turner
- a Centre for Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine (SESAME) , University of Brighton , Eastbourne , UK.,c EIS Performance Centre , Loughborough University , Loughborough , UK
| | - Barry W Fudge
- b National Performance Centre , Loughborough University , Loughborough , UK
| | - Jamie S M Pringle
- c EIS Performance Centre , Loughborough University , Loughborough , UK
| | - Neil S Maxwell
- a Centre for Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine (SESAME) , University of Brighton , Eastbourne , UK
| | - Alan J Richardson
- a Centre for Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine (SESAME) , University of Brighton , Eastbourne , UK
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14
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Płoszczyca K, Langfort J, Czuba M. The Effects of Altitude Training on Erythropoietic Response and Hematological Variables in Adult Athletes: A Narrative Review. Front Physiol 2018; 9:375. [PMID: 29695978 PMCID: PMC5904371 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: One of the goals of altitude training is to increase blood oxygen-carrying capacity in order to improve sea-level endurance performance in athletes. The elevated erythropoietin (EPO) production in hypoxia is a key factor in the achievement of enhanced hematological variables. The level of the EPO increase and acceleration of erythropoiesis depend on the duration of exposure and degree of hypoxia. Furthermore, many other factors may affect the hematological response to altitude training. Aim: The purpose of this narrative review was to: (1) analyze the kinetics of EPO and hematological variables during and after altitude training; (2) summarize the current state of knowledge about the possible causes of individual or cohort differences in EPO and hematological response to altitude training; (3) formulate practical guidelines for athletes to improve the efficiency of altitude training. Methods: A narrative review was performed following an electronic search of the databases PubMed/MEDLINE and SPORTDiscus via EBSCO for all English-language articles published between 1997 and 2017. Results: Complete unification of results from studies on EPO kinetics was difficult due to different time and frequency of blood sampling by different researchers during and after altitude training, but the data presented in the reviewed literature allowed us to detect certain trends. The results of the reviewed studies were divergent and indicated either increase or no change of hematological variables following altitude training. Factors that may affect the hematological response to altitude training include hypoxic dose, training content, training background of athletes, and/or individual variability of EPO production. Conclusions: Despite the potential benefits arising from altitude training, its effectiveness in improving hematological variables is still debatable. Further research and better understanding of factors influencing the response to altitude, as well as factors affecting the suitable measurement and interpretation of study results, are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamila Płoszczyca
- Department of Sports Training, Academy of Physical Education of Katowice, Katowice, Poland
| | - Józef Langfort
- Department of Sports Training, Academy of Physical Education of Katowice, Katowice, Poland
| | - Miłosz Czuba
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Sport, Warsaw, Poland
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15
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Sanchez AMJ, Borrani F. Effects of intermittent hypoxic training performed at high hypoxia level on exercise performance in highly trained runners. J Sports Sci 2018; 36:2045-2052. [PMID: 29394148 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2018.1434747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
This study exanimated the effects of intermittent hypoxic training (IHT) conducted at a high level of hypoxia with recovery at ambient air on aerobic/anaerobic capacities at sea level and hematological variations. According to a double-blind randomized design, fifteen highly endurance-trained runners completed a 6-weeks regimented training with 3 sessions per week consisting of intermittent runs (6x work-rest ratio of 5':5') on a treadmill at 80-85% of maximal aerobic speed ([Formula: see text]). Nine athletes (hypoxic group, HG) performed the exercise bouts at FI02 = 10.6-11.4% while six athletes (normoxic group, NG) exercised at ambient air. Running time to exhaustion at a velocity corresponding to 95% [Formula: see text] significantly increased for HG while no effect was found for NG. Regarding [Formula: see text], no significant effects were found in either training group. In addition, the decline of jumping performances over a 45s-continuous maximal vertical jump test (i.e. anaerobic capacity index) tended to be lower in HG compared to NG. The levels of the studied hematological variables, including erythropoietin and hematocrit, did not significantly change for either HG or NG. These results highlight that our IHT protocol may induce additional effects on aerobic performance without compromising the anaerobic capacity index in highly-trained athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony M J Sanchez
- a Laboratoire Européen Performance Santé Altitude, EA4604 , University of Perpignan Via Domitia, Department of Sports Sciences , Font-Romeu , France
| | - Fabio Borrani
- b Institute of Sport Sciences of University of Lausanne (ISSUL), Faculty of Biology and Medicine , University of Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland
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