Cigarette smoke condensate upregulates the gene and protein expression of proinflammatory cytokines in human fibroblast-like synoviocyte line

Association between secondhand smoke exposure and rheumatoid arthritis in US never-smoking adults: a cross-sectional study from NHANES

While smoking is widely acknowledged as a risk factor for rheumatoid arthritis (RA), the connection between secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure and RA in never-smoking adults remains limited and inconsistent. This study aims to explore and quantify this association using serum cotinine levels. We conducted a cross-sectional study with 14,940 adults who self-report as never smokers, using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data from 1999 to 2018. Based on previous literature, SHS exposure was categorized into four groups according to serum cotinine levels. Compared to individuals in the unexposed group (serum cotinine < 0.05 ng/mL), the adjusted odds ratio (OR) for RA was 1.37 (95% CI 1.14-1.64, p = 0.001) in the low exposure group (serum cotinine at 0.05 to 0.99 ng/mL) after adjusting for covariates. However, no significant association was found in the moderate exposure group (serum cotinine at 1 to 10 ng/mL) or the heavy exposure group (serum cotinine ≥ 10 ng/mL). Furthermore, we detected a non-linear, positively saturated correlation between the cotinine levels after log2 transformation and RA, with a turning point at approximately - 2.756 ng/mL (OR = 1.163, 95% CI 1.073-1.261, p = 0.0002). The stability of the results was confirmed by subgroup analysis.

Rheumatoid arthritis: advances in treatment strategies

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is characterised by severe joint and bone damage due to heightened autoimmune response at the articular sites. Worldwide annual incidence and prevalence rate of RA is 3 cases per 10,000 population and 1%, respectively. Several genetic and environmental (microbiota, smoking, infectious agents) factors contribute to its pathogenesis. Although convention treatment strategies, predominantly Disease Modifying Anti Rheumatic Drugs (DMARDs) and Glucocorticoids (GC), are unchanged as the primary line of treatment; novel strategies consisting of biological DMARDs, are being developed and explored. Personalized approaches using biologicals targetspecific pathways associated with disease progression. However, considering the economic burden and side-effects associated with these, there is an unmet need on strategies for early stratification of the inadequate responders with cDMARDs. As RA is a complex disease with a variable remission rate, it is important not only to evaluate the current status of drugs in clinical practice but also those with the potential of personalised therapeutics. Here, we provide comprehensive data on the treatment strategies in RA, including studies exploring various combination strategies in clinical trials. Our systematic analysis of current literature found that conventional DMARDs along with glucocorticoid may be best suited for early RA cases and a combination of conventional and targeted DMARDs could be effective for treating seronegative patients with moderate to high RA activity. Clinical trials with insufficient responders to Methotrexate suggest that adding biologicals may help in such cases. However, certain adverse events associated with the current therapy advocate exploring novel therapeutic approaches such as gene therapy, mesenchymal stem cell therapy in future.

Ninjinyoeito ameliorated cigarette smoke extract-induced apoptosis and inflammation through JNK signaling inhibition in human lung fibroblasts

BACKGROUND

Cigarette smoke is a major risk factor for various lung diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Ninjinyoeito (NYT), a traditional Chinese medicine, has been prescribed for patients with post-illness or post-operative weakness, fatigue, loss of appetite, rash, cold limbs, and anemia. In addition to its traditional use, NYT has been prescribed for treating frailty in gastrointestinal, respiratory, and urinary functions. Further, NYT treatment can ameliorate cigarette smoke-induced lung injury, which is a destructive index in mice; however, the detailed underlying mechanism remains unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether NYT ameliorates cigarette smoke-induced cell injury and inflammation in human lung fibroblasts and determine its mechanism of action.

METHODS

We prepared a cigarette smoke extract (CSE) from commercially available cigarettes to induce cell injury and inflammation in the human lung fibroblast cell line HFL1. The cells were pretreated with NYT for 24 h prior to CSE exposure. Cytotoxicity and cell viability were measured by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) cytotoxicity assay and cell counting kit (CCK)-8. IL-8 level in the cell culture medium was measured by performing Enzyme-Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA). To clarify the mechanisms of NYT, we used CellROX Green Reagent for reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and western blotting analysis for cell signaling.

RESULTS

Exposure of HFL1 cells to CSE for 24 h induced apoptosis and interleukin (IL)-8 release. Pretreatment with NYT inhibited apoptosis and IL-8 release. Furthermore, CSE exposure for 24 h increased the production of ROS and phosphorylation levels of p38 and JNK. Pretreatment with NYT only inhibited CSE-induced JNK phosphorylation, and not ROS production and p38 phosphorylation. These results suggest that NYT acts as a JNK-specific inhibitor.

CONCLUSION

NYT treatment ameliorated CSE-induced apoptosis and inflammation by inhibiting the JNK signaling pathway. Finally, these results suggest that NYT may be a promising therapeutic agent for patients with COPD.

Bidirectional Associations among Nicotine and Tobacco Smoke, NeuroHIV, and Antiretroviral Therapy

People living with HIV (PLWH) in the antiretroviral therapy (ART) era may lose more life-years to tobacco use than to HIV. Yet, smoking rates are more than twice as high among PLWH than the general population, contributing not just to mortality but to other adverse health outcomes, including neurocognitive deficits (neuroHIV). There is growing evidence that synergy with chronic inflammation and immune dysregulation that persists despite ART may be one mechanism by which tobacco smoking contributes to neuroHIV. This review will summarize the differential effects of nicotine vs tobacco smoking on inflammation in addition to the effects of tobacco smoke components on HIV disease progression. We will also discuss biomarkers of inflammation via neuroimaging as well as biomarkers of nicotine dependence (e.g., nicotine metabolite ratio). Tobacco smoking and nicotine may impact ART drug metabolism and conversely, certain ARTs may impact nicotine metabolism. Thus, we will review these bidirectional relationships and how they may contribute to neuroHIV and other adverse outcomes. We will also discuss the effects of tobacco use on the interaction between peripheral organs (lungs, heart, kidney) and subsequent CNS function in the context of HIV. Lastly, given the dramatic rise in the use of electronic nicotine delivery systems, we will discuss the implications of vaping on these processes. Despite the growing recognition of the importance of addressing tobacco use among PLWH, more research is necessary at both the preclinical and clinical level to disentangle the potentially synergistic effects of tobacco use, nicotine, HIV, cognition and immune dysregulation, as well as identify optimal approaches to reduce tobacco use. Graphical Abstract Proposed model of the relationships among HIV, ART, smoking, inflammation, and neurocognition. Solid lines represent relationships supported by evidence. Dashed lines represent relationships for which there is not enough evidence to make a conclusion. (a) HIV infection produces elevated levels of inflammation even among virally suppressed individuals. (b) HIV is associated with deficits in cognition function. (c) Smoking rates are higher among PLWH, compared to the general population. (d) The nicotine metabolite ratio (NMR) is associated with smoking behavior. (e) HIV and tobacco use are both associated with higher rates of psychiatric comorbidities, such as depression, and elevated levels of chronic stress. These factors may represent other mechanisms linking HIV and tobacco use. (f) The relationship between nicotine, tobacco smoking, and inflammation is complex, but it is well-established that smoking induces inflammation; the evidence for nicotine as anti-inflammatory is supported in some studies, but not others. (g) The relationship between tobacco use and neurocognition may differ for the effects of nicotine (acute nicotine use may have beneficial effects) vs. tobacco smoking (chronic use may impair cognition). (h) Elevated levels of inflammation may be associated with deficits in cognition. (i) PLWH may metabolize nicotine faster than those without HIV; the mechanism is not yet known and the finding needs validation in larger samples. We also hypothesize that if HIV-infection increases nicotine metabolism, then we should observe an attenuation effect once ART is initiated. (j) It is possible that the increase in NMR is due to ART effects on CYP2A6. (k) We hypothesize that faster nicotine metabolism may result in higher levels of inflammation since nicotine has anti-inflammatory properties.

5-Hydroxy-2-methylpyridine Isolated from Cigarette Smoke Condensate Aggravates Collagen-Induced Arthritis in Mice

The risk of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is linked to environmental and genetic factors. Cigarette smoking is an established environmental risk factor for the disease that contributes to its development and severity. Previously, we found that cigarette smoke condensate (CSC), both mainstream and sidestream, aggravates collagen type II-induced arthritis (CIA), which was observed following either intraperitoneal inoculation or nasal exposure. In the present study, we aimed to identify the compound in CSC, which aggravates CIA. By sequential fractionation and analysis, extraction with water/ether in different pH values, silica gel column chromatography, TLC, octadecyl silica (ODS) HPLC, GC/MS, and NMR, the active compound was identified as 5-hydroxy-2-methylpyridine (5H2MP). Its isomer 2-hydroxy-3-methylpyridine, but not 3-hydroxy-2-methylpyridine, was also active. 5H2MP was not mutagenic, and did not exhibit aryl hydrocarbon receptor-dependent activity. Our data help clarify the mechanism underlying the pathogenic effects of cigarette smoking on RA.

Impact of secondhand smoking on disease activity in women with rheumatoid arthritis

Smoking is an established risk factor for the development and severity of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) with prominent production of cytokines. The aim of the work was to study the possible effect of secondhand exposure on disease activity in non-smoking female RA patients. This cross-sectional study include 100 women with RA attending the rheumatology outpatient clinic and were grouped according to the non-smoking status into those not exposed to smoking and those considered secondhand smokers (SHS). Disease activity score in 28 joints (DAS28) was calculated and the patients' global assessment (PGA) score were assessed. The mean age of the patients was 45.2 ± 12.1 years and disease duration was 8.3 ± 6 years. Their DAS28 score was 4.3 ± 0.93 with a PGA score of 1.47 ± 1.36. Forty-seven of the patients were SHS and 53 were non-exposed. The secondhand smokers were significantly younger (41.6 ± 11.7 years) than the non-smokers (48.3 ± 11.6 years) (p = 0.005), and the DAS28 was significantly higher (4.6 ± 0.84 versus 4.1 ± 0.97; p = 0.02) compared to non-smokers. The disease duration and medications received were comparable. There is evidence pointing to the important role of secondhand smoking on disease activity in RA female patients. Studying the effect of secondhand smoking in view of the cytokine milieu could help confirm the relation to the disease pathogenesis. Taking into consideration the risk of cardiovascular disease and interplay with other potential factors should be well thought of. It is essential to draw patients' attention to the expected hazardous effect of passive smoking.

Effect of Genetic Polymorphisms and Long-Term Tobacco Exposure on the Risk of Breast Cancer

INTRODUCTION

Tobacco smoke contains many potentially harmful compounds that may act differently and at different stages in breast cancer development. The focus of this work was to assess the possible role of cigarette smoking (status, dose, duration or age at initiation) and polymorphisms in genes coding for enzymes involved in tobacco carcinogen metabolism (CYP1A1, CYP2A6) or in DNA repair (XRCC1, APEX1, XRCC3 and XPD) in breast cancer development.

METHODS

We designed a case control study with 297 patients, 217 histologically verified breast cancers (141 smokers and 76 non-smokers) and 80 healthy smokers in a cohort of Spanish women.

RESULTS

We found an association between smoking status and early age at diagnosis of breast cancer. Among smokers, invasive carcinoma subtype incidence increased with intensity and duration of smoking (all P_trend < 0.05). When smokers were stratified by smoking duration, we only observed differences in long-term smokers, and the CYP1A1 Ile462Ile genotype was associated with increased risk of breast cancer (OR = 7.12 (1.98-25.59)).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support the main effect of CYP1A1 in estrogenic metabolism rather than in tobacco carcinogen activation in breast cancer patients and also confirmed the hypothesis that CYP1A1 Ile462Val, in association with long periods of active smoking, could be a breast cancer risk factor.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor antagonism and its role in rheumatoid arthritis

Although rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is the most common autoimmune disease, affecting approximately 1% of the population worldwide, its pathogenic mechanisms are poorly understood. Tobacco smoke, an environmental risk factor for RA, contains several ligands of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ahr), also known as dioxin receptor. Ahr plays critical roles in the immune system. We previously demonstrated that Ahr in helper T-cells contributes to development of collagen-induced arthritis, a mouse model of RA. Other studies have shown that cigarette smoke condensate and pure Ahr ligands exacerbate RA by altering bone metabolism and inducing proinflammatory responses in fibroblast-like synoviocytes. Consistent with these findings, several Ahr antagonists such as α-naphthoflavone, resveratrol, and GNF351 reverse the effect of Ahr ligands in RA pathogenesis. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of Ahr function in the immune system and the potential clinical benefits of Ahr antagonism in treating RA.

Cigarette smoke condensate and individual constituents modulate DNA methyltransferase expression in human liver cells

Objectives:

Previous studies found higher expression levels of DNA methyltransferase 1 in liver samples from smokers compared to those from non-smokers. In contrast, expression levels of DNA methyltransferase 3a and DNA methyltransferase 3b were similar in smokers and non-smokers. This study extends these studies to establish a causal linkage to cigarette smoke exposure by examining whether DNA methyltransferase expression is modulated by cigarette smoke condensate.

Methods:

These experiments were conducted in an in vitro system using HepG2 human liver cells. The dose range of cigarette smoke condensate was 0.1–120 µg/mL. The duration of exposure was up to 72 h.

Results:

In a 24-h exposure, DNA methyltransferase 1 expression was found to increase significantly in a dose-dependent manner (greater than threefold at 100 µg/mL cigarette smoke condensate). Expression levels of DNA methyltransferase 3a and DNA methyltransferase 3b were, however, not affected under these conditions. The effect of two cigarette constituents, nicotine and cotinine, on DNA methyltransferase 1 expression was also examined. Nicotine exposure significantly increased DNA methyltransferase 1 expression in a dose-dependent manner (greater than twofold at 50 µM). However, under these conditions, cotinine did not increase DNA methyltransferase 1 expression.

Conclusion:

These results clearly provide additional support of the modulating effect of cigarette smoke on DNA methyltransferase 1 expression. Given the potential of alterations in DNA methyltransferase expression to affect cellular function, this pathway may play a critical role in cigarette smoke-induced toxicity.

Cytotoxicity of chronic exposure to 4 cigarette smoke condensates in 2 cell lines

Tobacco use is the leading preventable cause of death. The cytotoxicity of cigarette smoke condensate (CSC), the particulate fraction of cigarette smoke without the vapor phase, has mostly been tested in short-term in vitro studies lasting from a few hours to a few days. Here, we assessed the toxicity of CSCs from 2 reference cigarettes, 3R4F and CM6, using a primary human small airway epithelial (PSAE) cell line by quantifying adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP), 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxy-methoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium (MTS), total glutathione (reduced glutathione [GSH] + oxidized glutathione [GSSG]), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release over the course of 28 days. The CSCs, 0.3 to 10 μg/mL, promoted cell proliferation at 120 hours of exposure, but demonstrated cytotoxicity at days 14 and 28. Interestingly, CSCs, 0.3 to 3 μg/mL, showed a cell death effect at day 14 but induced cell proliferation at day 28. Consistently, transformation associated with morphological changes began by day 14 and the transformed cells grew dramatically at day 28. The LDH assay appeared to be sensitive for assessing early cell damage, whereas the ATP, MTS, and GSH assays were more suitable for determining later stage CSCs-induced cytotoxicity. The ATP assay showed greater sensitivity than the MTS and GSH assays. We also assessed the toxicity of CSCs in an human Telomerase Reverse Transcriptase (hTERT)-immortalized Barrett esophagus cell line (CP-C). The CP-C cells demonstrated dose- and time-dependent cytotoxicity over the course of 28 days but displayed higher resistance to CSCs than PSAE cells. This study demonstrates that CSCs cause cytotoxicity and induce transformation related to cell resistance and cell invasion properties.

Three cases of previous smokers with rheumatoid arthritis who did not respond to tumor necrosis factor inhibitors were treated successfully with an anti-interleukin-6 receptor antibody

We report three cases of previous smokers who did not respond to TNF inhibitors but who responded successfully to an anti-interleukin-6 receptor antibody (tocilizumab (TCZ)). Case 1 is a 63-year-old woman whose smoking index was 200 and had been complaining of polyarthralgia since 1996. She started treatment with etanercept due to high disease activity, but her DAS28-CRP was 4.2. She was therefore switched to TCZ, which dramatically improved her symptoms; her DAS28-CRP had decreased to 2.1. Case 2 is a 64-year-old man whose smoking index was 1600 and had been complaining of polyarthralgia since 2006. Because his DAS28-CRP score increased over time to 5.9, etanercept and adalimumab were added sequentially, but he showed no response over the course of two years. The patient was therefore switched to TCZ, which dramatically improved his symptoms: his DAS28-CRP decreased to 2.7. Case 3 is a 48-year-old woman whose smoking index was 560 and had been complaining of pain in both knee joints since 2001. She was treated with adalimumab due to high disease activity but showed no response over the course of 1.5 years. The patient was therefore switched to TCZ, and her DAS28-CRP decreased to 1.8. An IL-6 blockade might be suitable for treating these 3 cases of previous smokers.

Smoking and rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease caused by both genetic and environmental factors. Smoking has been implicated as one of the most important extrinsic risk factors for its development and severity. Recent developments have shed light on the pathophysiology of RA in smokers, including oxidative stress, inflammation, autoantibody formation and epigenetic changes. The association of smoking and the development of RA have been demonstrated through epidemiologic studies, as well as through in vivo and animal models of RA. With increased use of biological agents in addition to standard disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), there has been interest in how smoking affects drug response in RA treatment. Recent evidence suggests the response and drug survival in people treated with anti-tumour necrosis factor (anti-TNF) therapy is poorer in heavy smokers, and possible immunological mechanisms for this effect are presented in the current paper.

Effect of cigarette smoke condensate on gene promoter methylation in human lung cells

BACKGROUND

In lung cancer, an association between tobacco smoking and promoter DNA hypermethylation has been demonstrated for several genes. However, underlying mechanisms for promoter hypermethylation in tobacco-induced cancer are yet to be fully established.

METHODS

Promoter methylation was evaluated in control and cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) exposed human lung cells using the Methyl-Profiler DNA Methylation PCR System. PSAE cells were exposed to 0.3 or 1.0 μg/ml CSC for 72 hours and longer term for 14 and 30 days. NL-20 cells were exposed for 30 days to 10 or 100 μg/ml CSC.

RESULTS

Promoters of several genes, including hsa-let-7a-3, CHD1, CXCL12, PAX5, RASSF2, and TCF21, were highly methylated (>90%); hsa-let-7a-3 was affected in both cell lines and under all exposure conditions. Level of methylation tended to increase with CSC concentration and exposure duration (statistical differences were not determined). Percentage methylation of TCF21, which was >98% at exposures of 10 or 100 μg/ml CSC, was found to be reduced to 28% and 42%, respectively, in the presence of the dietary agent genistein.

CONCLUSIONS

Using array techniques, several tumor suppressor genes in human lung cells were identified that undergo promoter hypermethylation, providing further evidence of their potential involvement in tobacco smoke-induced lung carcinogenesis and their use as potential biomarkers of harm in tobacco smoke exposure. Results from the study also demonstrated the potential of a dietary agent to exert chemopreventive activity in human tissue against tobacco smoke related diseases through modulation of DNA methylation. Additional studies are needed to confirm these findings.

Regulation of gene expression by tobacco product preparations in cultured human dermal fibroblasts

Skin fibroblasts comprise the first barrier of defense against wounds, and tobacco products directly contact the oral cavity. Cultured human dermal fibroblasts were exposed to smokeless tobacco extract (STE), total particulate matter (TPM) from tobacco smoke, or nicotine at concentrations comparable to those found in these extracts for 1h or 5h. Differences were identified in pathway-specific genes between treatments and vehicle using qRT-PCR. At 1h, IL1α was suppressed significantly by TPM and less significantly by STE. Neither FOS nor JUN was suppressed at 1h by tobacco products. IL8, TNFα, VCAM1, and NFκB1 were suppressed after 5h with STE, whereas only TNFα and NFκB1 were suppressed by TPM. At 1h with TPM, secreted levels of IL10 and TNFα were increased. Potentially confounding effects of nicotine were exemplified by genes such as ATF3 (5h), which was increased by nicotine but suppressed by other components of STE. Within 2h, TPM stimulated nitric oxide production, and both STE and TPM increased reactive oxygen species. The biological significance of these findings and utilization of the gene expression changes reported herein regarding effects of the tobacco product preparations on dermal fibroblasts will require additional research.

Delineating the synovial fluid proteome: recent advancements and ongoing challenges in biomarker research

There is an urgent need for identifying novel serum biomarkers that can be used to improve diagnosis, predict disease progression or response to therapy, or serve as therapeutic targets for rheumatic diseases. Synovial fluid (SF) is secreted by and remains in direct contact with the synovial membrane, and can reflect the biochemical state of the joint under different physiological and pathological conditions. Therefore, SF is regarded as an excellent source for identifying biomarkers of rheumatologic diseases. The use of high-throughput and/or quantitative proteomics and sophisticated computational software applied to analyze the protein content of SF has been well-adopted as an approach to finding novel arthritis biomarkers. This review will focus on some of the potential pitfalls of biomarker studies using SF, summarize the status of the field of SF proteomics in general, as well as discuss some of the most promising biomarker study approaches using proteomics. A brief status of the biomarker discovery efforts in rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and juvenile idiopathic arthritis is also provided.

Anti-inflammatory effects of budesonide in human lung fibroblast are independent of histone deacetylase 2

Objective and design

Reduced expression of histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) in alveolar macrophages and epithelial cells may account for reduced response of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients to glucocorticoids. HDAC2 expression and its role in mediating glucocorticoid effects on fibroblast functions, however, has not been fully studied. This study was designed to investigate whether HDAC2 mediates glucocorticoid effects on release of inflammatory cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) from human lung fibroblasts.

Methods

Human lung fibroblasts (HFL-1 cells) were stimulated with interleukin (IL)-1 β plus tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α in the presence or absence of the glucocorticoid budesonide. Cytokines (IL-6 and IL-8) were quantified by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and MMPs (MMP-1 and MMP-3) by immunoblotting in culture medium. The role of HDAC2 was investigated using a pharmacologic inhibitor as well as a small interfering ribonucleic acid (siRNA) targeting HDAC2.

Results

We have demonstrated that budesonide concentration-dependently (10⁻¹⁰–10⁻⁷ M) inhibited IL-6, IL-8, MMP-1, and MMP-3 release by HFL-1 cells in response to IL-1β plus TNF-α. While an HDAC inhibitor significantly blocked the inhibitory effect of budesonide on human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs) and monocytes (THP-1 cells), it did not block the inhibitory effect of budesonide on release of cytokines and MMPs from HFL-1 cells. Similarly, an HDAC2-siRNA blocked budesonide inhibition of cytokine release in HBECs, but it did not block the inhibitory effect of budesonide on HFL-1 cytokine and MMP release. Furthermore, budesonide significantly blocked release of cytokines and MMPs to a similar degree in normal and COPD lung fibroblasts as well as in HFL-1 cells exposed or not exposed to cigarette smoke extract.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that, in contrast to airway epithelial cells and monocytes/macrophages, HDAC2 is not required for budesonide to inhibit MMP and cytokine release by lung fibroblasts and this inhibitory pathway appears to be intact in cultured fibroblasts from COPD patients. These results also suggest that budesonide has the potential to modulate fibroblast-mediated tissue remodeling following airway inflammation in COPD, which is mediated via an HDAC2 independent pathway.

[Interluekin-1: from regulation of cell proliferation to chronic inflammatory diseases]

  Interleukin 1 (IL-1) was initially defined as a factor which is produced by macrophages and exhibits proliferative activity on thymocytes and fibroblasts, B cell activation and endogenous pyrogen activity. Now IL-1 is known to exhibit pleiotropic activities on various cell types and play important roles in the regulation of immune, nervous and endocrine systems, progression of tumor cells, hematopoietic cell proliferation/differentiation and especially in inflammatory diseases. In 1985 I found that IL-1 exhibits cytocidal activity against human melanoma cells. Since then I have been engaged in the research of various aspects of IL-1. This review summarizes current knowledge of IL-1, including our research and beneficial effect of IL-1 blocking on inflammatory diseases.

Cigarette smoke condensate extracts induce IL-1-beta production from rheumatoid arthritis patient-derived synoviocytes, but not osteoarthritis patient-derived synoviocytes, through aryl hydrocarbon receptor-dependent NF-kappa-B activation and novel NF-kappa-B sites

Cigarette smoking is a major established environmental risk factor for rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and synoviocyte-derived proinflammatory cytokines are implicated in the pathogenesis of RA. We have reported that aryl hydrocarbon or cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) is able to upregulate the production of proinflammatory cytokines from an RA patient-derived synovial fibroblast cell line MH7A. In this study, we compared the effect of CSC on induction of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) from RA or osteoarthritis (OA) patient-derived synovial fibroblasts, and studied the mechanism of the effect of CSC. CSC induced IL-1β mRNA from RA patient-derived synoviocytes and MH7A, but not from OA patient-derived synoviocytes. CSC induced the mRNA and both precursor and mature forms of IL-1β, and caspase-1 activity in MH7A. The mechanism of CSC-induced IL-1β mRNA expression was investigated in MH7A. Reporter gene analyses and promoter pull-down assay indicated that 3 novel NF-κB sites at -3771 to -3762 bp, -3105 to -3096 bp, and -2787 to -2778 bp in the promoter region of the IL-1β gene, especially the far distal NF-κB site and NF-κB activation, are critical for the gene activation by CSC. CSC-induced NF-κB activation, IL-1β promoter activity, IL-1β mRNA upregulation, and CYP1A1 mRNA induction were all inhibited by an aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) antagonist α-naphthoflavone. These results indicate that CSC induced IL-1β production from RA patient-derived synoviocytes, but not OA patient-derived synoviocytes, through AhR-dependent NF-κB activation and novel NF-κB sites.

[Rheumatoid arthritis. Systemic inflammation and cardiovascular morbidity]

In recent years it could be shown that systemic inflammation, which typically occurs in chronic inflammatory rheumatic diseases, significantly contributes to cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. All rheumatic diseases inherit this enhanced risk for cardiovascular complications with rheumatoid arthritis being one of the most prominent. As the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms are very similar with respect to endothelial damage all rheumatic diseases and specifically rheumatoid arthritis should be monitored and treated with disease-modifying drugs and biological agents as consistently as possible to be able to improve the long-term outcome of affected patients as much as possible.

Effects of cigarette smoke condensate and nicotine on human gingival fibroblast-mediated collagen degradation

BACKGROUND

Members of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family have been shown to be involved in periodontal disease. Risk factors for periodontal disease include tobacco smoking. Cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) is comprised of thousands of chemicals. Nicotine is one of the active components in tobacco. This study compares the effects of CSC and nicotine at the level in CSC on the collagen-degrading ability of human gingival fibroblasts (HGFs) and the expression of selected MMPs and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs).

METHODS

HGFs were seeded in six-well collagen-coated plates, exposed to 100 μg/mL (2.4 μg/mL nicotine) of CSC or 2.4 μg/mL nicotine for 3 days, and then collagen degradation was analyzed. After 3 days exposure to CSC or nicotine, the conditioned media from HGFs was collected and the membrane proteins were extracted for gelatin zymography and Western blot analyses. The mRNA levels of MMP-2, MMP-14, and TIMP-2 were measured by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

The CSC increased collagen degradation, and increased the levels of TIMP-2, MMP-14, and the active MMP-2 in the membrane extracts, and their mRNA levels. CSC also increased the level of active MMP-2 in the conditioned media. Nicotine at the level in CSC (2.4 μg/mL) had little influence on collagen degradation, as well as on the protein and mRNA levels of MMP-2, MMP-14, and TIMP-2.

CONCLUSIONS

CSC may increase HGF-mediated collagen degradation by affecting membrane-associated MMPs and TIMPs.

Etiological role of cigarette smoking in rheumatoid arthritis: Nasal exposure to cigarette smoke condensate extracts augments the development of collagen-induced arthritis in mice

Cigarette smoking is a major environmental risk factor for rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, the experimental bases supporting the etiological role of cigarette smoking in RA have not been fully provided. We have reported that cigarette smoke condensate (CSC), by means of subcutaneous injection into DBA/1J mice with collagen and complete Freund's adjuvant or intraperitoneal injection one day before immunization, augmented the development of arthritis in the mouse model of collagen type II-induced arthritis (CIA). However, these experimental procedures may not be appropriate for cigarette smoking. In this study, we nasally exposed mice to mainstream CSC and found that CSC augmented the induction and development of arthritis and antibody level against collagen. Histological examination confirmed the augmenting effect of CSC. These findings provide experimental bases supporting the etiological role of cigarette smoking in RA.

Cigarette smoke condensate extracts augment collagen-induced arthritis in mice

Although cigarette smoking is a solid environmental risk factor for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) as revealed by epidemiological studies, the scientific basis has not been provided. Proinflammatory cytokines produced by synoviocytes are implicated in the pathogenesis of RA. As cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) is able to up-regulate the production of proinflammatory cytokines from human fibroblast-like synoviocytes, we studied the effect of CSC on induction of arthritis in the mouse model of collagen type II-induced arthritis (CIA). When mainstream CSC or sidestream CSC was administered into DBA/1J mice at the time of immunization with collagen and complete Freund adjuvant, CSC dose-dependently augmented the induction and clinical development of arthritis at both young and older mice. Peritoneal injected mainstream CSC one day before immunization also exhibited the augmenting effect, suggesting the systemic effect of CSC. These results support the etiological role of cigarette smoking in RA.

Anti-TNF-alpha agents are less effective for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis in current smokers

OBJECTIVES

To assess if smoking status at the time of commencing an anti-TNF-alpha agent for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) reduces the likelihood of achieving at least a moderate response on the European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) response criteria at 3-month assessment.

METHODS

All patients with RA treated with their first anti-TNF-alpha agent at the Department of Rheumatology, Derby Hospital NHS Trust between April 2001 and October 2008 were included in this retrospective case control study. Information about age, gender, disease duration, body mass index, smoking status (current smoker, ex-smoker, and nonsmoker), comorbidities, oral prednisolone use, and 28 joint 4 variables disease activity score (DAS28) at the time of commencing an anti-TNF-alpha agent was recorded. Details of rheumatoid factor (RF) and past and present disease modifying antirheumatic drugs were recorded. A case control study was carried out to examine possible baseline predictors of treatment effects at the 3-month assessment.

RESULTS

Results were available for 395 patients at 3-month assessment. According to the EULAR response criteria 42 patients failed to show at least a moderate response. After adjusting for confounders using multivariate analysis, current smoking at the time of commencing an anti-TNF-alpha agent reduced the chance of achieving at least a moderate response on the EULAR response criteria when compared with nonsmokers (aOR [95% CI] 0.20 [0.05-0.83], P = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

RA patients who smoke are less likely to respond to an anti-TNF-alpha agent.

Detrimental effects of cigarette smoke constituents on physiological development of extraocular and intraocular structures

No investigation has yet been accomplished to screen the detrimental effects of cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) and total particular matter solution (TPMS) on embryonic development of extraocular and intraocular structures. In this report, chicken embryo assay was utilized to undermine diverse ocular pathologies produced by exposure of CSC and TPM. Extraocular anomalies triggered after exposure of CSC and TPMS include degeneration of optic chiasma, medial rectus muscle, and inflammatory lesions in forebrain. Histological investigations of CSC and TPMS-treated embryos also exposed delayed differentiation of photoreceptor layer, degeneration of retinal ganglion and nerve cell layer. In addition, corneal thickness, deterioration and complete loss of hyaloid vasculature were observed. Extraocular and intraocular regions of TPMS-treated embryos also revealed widespread hemorrhages in the entire cephalic, optic disc, ganglion cell layer and vitreous humor area. The findings of our experiment demonstrate, for the first time, that exposure to CSC and TPMS is hazardous for developing embryos and it has potential detrimental effects on several underlying events of ocular development. Moreover, it was also intriguing that toxicity profile of TMP was much more higher than CSC with more profound detrimental effects on ocular development.