Punicic Acid fromTrichosanthes kirilowiiSeed Oil Is Rapidly Metabolized to Conjugated Linoleic Acid in Rats

Fermented pomegranate juice enriched with pomegranate seed oil ameliorates metabolic disorders associated with a high-fat diet in C57BL/6 mice

This study investigated the health-functional properties of a lactic fermented pomegranate juice (FPJ) enriched with pomegranate seed oil (FPJO) by using the fruit-origin strain Lactiplantibacillus paraplantarum CRL 2051 (FPJO-CRL2051). For this aim, the in vitro human antiplatelet aggregation effect and antioxidant activities were determined in the fermented juices while in vivo studies using high-fat-diet (HFD) C57BL/6 mice fed with a high-fat diet or pomegranate fermented juices for 8 weeks were performed. A high anti-platelet aggregation activity for FPJO-CRL2051 was determined. The formulated juice was administered to C57BL/6 HFD mice over 8 weeks, which showed a significant decrease in triglycerides, LDL-C, and pro-inflammatory cytokines levels. The FPJO-CRL2051 administration was effective in ameliorating liver damage caused by HFD, reducing fat accumulation and oxidative biomarkers, and improving the liver fatty acid profile by incorporation of conjugated fatty acids. This study shows the significance of lactic fermentation in developing novel fermented plant-based beverages with enhanced functional activities with a circular economy approach for the prevention of metabolic disorders.

Ameliorative effects of Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim. seed oil on hyperlipidemia rats associated with the regulation of gut microbiology and metabolomics

The mechanisms underlying the ameliorative effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) on metabolic disorders induced by a high-fat diet (HFD) remain poorly unclear. In this study, we investigated the anti-hyperlipidemic effects of Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim. (T. kirilowii) seed oil rich in conjugated linolenic acid in HFD-induced hyperlipidemic rats, by the gut microbiome, cecum bile acids (BAs), and serum metabolomics. The results showed that T. kirilowii seed oil improved dyslipidemia, hepatic steatosis, oxidative stress, and inflammatory responses in HFD-induced rats. Meanwhile, T. kirilowii seed oil inhibited sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP-1c) mediated fatty acid synthesis and upregulated cholesterol 7-alpha hydroxylase (CYP7A1) mediated hepatic cholesterol metabolism to exert hypolipidemic effects. The administration of high dose T. kirilowii seed oil (THD) improved gut microbiota dysbiosis, increased the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria Romboutsia and unidentified_Oscillospiraceae, and decreased the relative abundance of Christensenellaceae_R-7 group, Phascolarctobacterium, and Bacteroides in HFD-induced rats. T. kirilowii seed oil reduced the accumulation of cecum primary BAs in HFD-induced rats. In addition, THD reversed the HFD-induced changes in 24 serum metabolites including leucine, isoleucine, acetylcarnitine, and glucose. Metabolic pathway enrichment analysis of the differential metabolites revealed that valine, leucine and isoleucine metabolism, butanoate metabolism, citrate cycle, and glycolysis were potential metabolic pathways involved in the anti-hyperlipidemic effects of T. kirilowii seed oil. In conclusion, this study found that dietary T. kirilowii seed oil alleviated gut microbiota dysbiosis and improved metabolic disorders in hyperlipidemic rats. This provides new insights into the anti-hyperlipidemic mechanism by which other families of PUFAs are derived from different plants.

Non-Categorical Analyses Identify Rotenone-Induced 'Parkinsonian' Rats Benefiting from Nano-Emulsified Punicic Acid (Nano-PSO) in a Phenotypically Diverse Population: Implications for Translational Neurodegenerative Therapies

The pursuit of nutraceuticals to improve the quality of life for patients with neurodegenerative conditions is a dynamic field within neuropharmacology. Unfortunately, many nutraceuticals that show promise in preclinical studies fail to demonstrate significant clinical benefits in human trials, leading to their exclusion as therapeutic options. This discrepancy may stem from the categorical interpretation of preclinical and clinical results. Basic researchers often assume that non-human experimental animals exhibit less phenotypic variability than humans. This belief overlooks interindividual phenotype variation, thereby leading to categorical conclusions being drawn from experiments. Consequently, when human clinical trials are conducted, the researchers expect similarly conclusive results. If these results are not achieved, the nutraceutical is deemed ineffective for clinical use, even if numerous individuals might benefit. In our study, we evaluated whether analyzing phenotype variability and similarity through non-categorical methods could help identify rotenone (ROT)-treated rats that might benefit from consuming nano-emulsified punicic acid (Nano-PSO), even if the prevention of "parkinsonism" or the restoration of neurometabolic function is inconsistent across individuals. Our findings supported this hypothesis. The benefits of Nano-PSO were not categorical; however, analyzing phenotype variance allowed us to identify ROT rats with varying degrees of benefit from Nano-PSO consumption. Hence, the translational potential of results from basic science studies testing nutraceuticals as pharmaceutical products against neurodegeneration may improve if researchers also interpret their results using non-categorical methods of data analysis for population screening, even if the overall therapeutic outcomes for the entire population show internal inconsistencies.

Metabolic, structure-activity characteristics of conjugated linolenic acids and their mediated health benefits

Conjugated linolenic acid (CLnA) is a mixture of octadecenoic acid with multiple positional and geometric isomers (including four 9, 11, 13-C18:3 isomers and three 8, 10, 12-C18:3 isomers) that is mainly present in plant seeds. In recent years, CLnA has shown many promising health benefits with the deepening of research, but the metabolic characteristics, physiological function differences and mechanisms of different isomers are relatively complex. In this article, the metabolic characteristics of CLnA were firstly reviewed, with focus on its conversion, catabolism and anabolism. Then the possible mechanisms of CLnA exerting biological effects were summarized and analyzed from its own chemical and physical characteristics, as well as biological receptor targeting characteristics. In addition, the differences and mechanisms of different isomers of CLnA in anticancer, lipid-lowering, anti-diabetic and anti-inflammatory physiological functions were compared and summarized. The current results show that the position and cis-trans conformation of conjugated structure endow CLnA with unique physical and chemical properties, which also makes different isomers have commonalities and particularities in the regulation of metabolism and physiological functions. Corresponding the metabolic characteristics of different isomers with precise nutrition strategy will help them to play a better role in disease prevention and treatment. CLnA has the potential to be developed into food functional components and dietary nutritional supplements. The advantages and mechanisms of different CLnA isomers in the clinical management of specific diseases need further study.

Association between dietary habits and incident thyroid cancer: A prospective cohort study

Background

In addition to the thyroid cancer (TC) risk from lifestyle and environmental factors such as radiation exposure, some studies have indicated that diet may affect TC development; however, previous findings are inconsistent. The objective of our study was to investigate the association between dietary habits and TC risk in a Korean population.

Materials and methods

A total of 13,973 participants were selected after excluding ineligible subjects from the Cancer Screenee Cohort at National Cancer Center in Korea from October 2007 to December 2021. Participants were followed until May 2022 to identify incident TC cases. Information on dietary habits and general characteristics was collected using a self-report questionnaire administered at enrollment without keeping track of changes in eating habits during the follow-up period. A Cox proportional hazards model was used to determine the hazard ratio (HR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) of TC risk for each dietary factor.

Results

A total of 138 incident TC cases were identified during the median follow-up period of 7.6 years. Of the 12 dietary habits evaluated, only two habits showed significant associations with TC. A significantly decreased TC risk was found among participants who consumed milk and/or dairy products 5 or more days a week [adjusted HR (aHR), 0.58; 95% CI, 0.39-0.85]. Notably, a stronger protective effect of dairy consumption was observed in participants aged ≥ 50 years (aHR, 0.44; 95% CI, 0.26-0.75), in women (aHR, 0.53; 95% CI, 0.35-0.81), and in non-smokers (aHR, 0.60; 95% CI, 0.39-0.92). There was a reduced risk of TC in participants with meal durations longer than 10 min (aHR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.41-0.83). However, this association was limited to individuals aged ≥ 50 years (aHR, 0.49; 95% CI, 0.31-0.79), women (aHR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.41-0.90), and non-smokers (aHR, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.41-0.92).

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that consuming milk and/or dairy products 5 or more days a week and having a meal duration longer than 10 min could be protective factors against TC, especially in individuals aged ≥ 50 years, women and non-smokers. Further prospective studies are needed to investigate the association of dietary intake with specific types of TC.

Pomegranate Oil’s Potential as an Anti-Obesity Ingredient

In recent years, pomegranate oil has obtained more attention due to its content of conjugated linolenic acids and possible application in the prevention of many diseases. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the potential ability of pomegranate oil to modulate obesity-related metabolism and immune response using in vitro models. In this regard, pomegranate oil was characterized in terms of fatty acids profile, tocopherols and phytosterols, and antioxidant capacity. After evaluation of the safety profile, pomegranate oil’s capacity to modulate obesity-related metabolism was evaluated through adipolysis and adipokines secretion quantification in 3T3-L1 differentiated adipocytes and hepatic lipid accumulation assay in Hep G2 hepatocytes. The immunomodulatory activity was evaluated in Caco-2 cells by quantification of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α. This oil showed high antioxidant capacity and was mainly composed of conjugated fatty acid, namely punicic acid. Its chemical composition was responsible for its capacity to reduce the lipid accumulation in Hep G2 cells and 3T3-L1 differentiated adipocytes. In short, pomegranate oil shows great potential for the development of functional foods and nutraceuticals targeting obesity.

Punicic Acid and Its Role in the Prevention of Neurological Disorders: A Review

Millions of people worldwide are affected by neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). NDs are characterized by progressive damage and death of nerve cells accompanied by high levels of inflammatory biomarkers and oxidative stress conditions. Punicic acid, the main bioactive component of pomegranate (Punica granatum) seed oil, is an omega-5 isomer of conjugated α-linoleic acid that has shown strong anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects that contributes towards its positive effect against a wide arrange of diseases. Punicic acid decreases oxidative damage and inflammation by increasing the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. In addition, it can reduce beta-amyloid deposits formation and tau hyperphosphorylation by increasing the expression of GLUT4 protein and the inhibition of calpain hyperactivation. Microencapsulated pomegranate, with high levels of punicic acid, increases antioxidant PON1 activity in HDL. Likewise, encapsulated pomegranate formulations with high levels of punicic acid have shown an increase in the antioxidant PON1 activity in HDL. Because of the limited brain permeability of punicic acid, diverse delivery formulations have been developed to enhance the biological activity of punicic acid in the brain, diminishing neurological disorders symptoms. Punicic acid is an important nutraceutical compound in the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's disease.

A review of the functional effects of pine nut oil, pinolenic acid and its derivative eicosatrienoic acid and their potential health benefits

Pine nut oil (PNO) is rich in a variety of unusual delta-5-non-methylene-interrupted fatty acids (NMIFAs), including pinolenic acid (PLA; all cis-5,-9,-12 18:3) which typically comprises 14 to 19% of total fatty acids. PLA has been shown to be metabolised to eicosatrienoic acid (ETA; all cis-7,-11,-14 20:3) in various cells and tissues. Here we review the literature on PNO, PLA and its metabolite ETA in the context of human health applications. PNO and PLA have a range of favourable effects on body weight as well as fat deposition through increased energy expenditure (fatty acid oxidation) and decreased food energy intake (reduced appetite). PNO and PLA improve blood and hepatic lipids in animal models and insulin sensitivity in vitro and reduce inflammation and modulate immune function in vitro and in animal models. The few studies which have examined effects of ETA indicate it has anti-inflammatory properties. Another NMIFA from PNO, sciadonic acid (all cis-5,-11,-14 20:3), has generally similar properties to PLA where these have been investigated. There is potential for human health benefits from PNO, its constituent NMIFA PLA and the PLA derivative ETA. However further studies are needed to explore the effects in humans.

Delay of gCJD aggravation in sick TgMHu2ME199K mice by combining NPC transplantation and Nano-PSO administration

gCJD is a fatal late-onset neurodegenerative disease linked to mutations in the PRNP gene. We have previously shown that transplantation of neural precursor cells (NPCs), or administration of a nanoformulation of pomegranate seed oil (Nano-PSO, GranaGard), into newborn asymptomatic TgMHu2ME199K mice modeling for E200K gCJD significantly delayed the advance of clinical disease. In the present study, we tested the individual and combined effects of both treatments in older and sick TgMHu2ME199K mice. We show that while transplantation of NPCs at both initial (140 days) and advance clinical states (230 days) arrested disease progression for about 30 days, after which scores rapidly climbed to those of untreated Tgs, administration of Nano-PSO to transplanted TgMHu2ME199K mice resulted in detention of disease advance for 60-80 days, followed by a slower disease progression thereafter. Pathological examinations demonstrated the combined treatment extended the survival of the transplanted NPCs, and also increased the generation of endogenous stem cells. Our results suggest that administration of Nano-PSO may increase the beneficial effects of NPCs transplantation.

Hypolipidemic and antioxidant activities of Trichosanthes kirilowii maxim seed oil and flavonoids in mice fed with a high-fat diet

Trichosanlhes kirilowii Maxim seed oil (TSO) is rich in conjugated linolenic acids, and the flavonoids (FLA) combined with n-3 fatty acids can effectively change the plasma antioxidant capacity. Hyperlipidemia and oxidative stress are one of the most important risk factors for cardiovascular disease. This study aims to evaluate the effect of the TSO, FLA, and TSO combined with FLA (TSOFLA) intake on hyperlipemia mice. TSO and TSOFLA administration resulted in a significant decline in serum levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, and low density lipoprotein-cholesterol. TSOFLA improved the hepatic and serum antioxidant status as assessed by superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase activities, and reduced the levels of lipid peroxidation. Hematoxylin-eosin staining of liver and aorta tissue has shown a marked reduction of the hyperlipidemia-induced lesions by gavage TSOFLA. Compared with TSO and FLA, TSOFLA has more significant hypolipidemic and antioxidant activities, which effects may be correlated to the synergy between TSO and FLA. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Dyslipidemia is a common metabolic disorder, which is characterized by triglyceride levels increased, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Lipid-lowering treatment can reduce the expansion of coronary atherosclerosis, and particular the dietary lipids have important roles in controlling the concentrations of these risk factors. This is the first study evaluating the hypolipidemic and antioxidant activities effects of Trichosanlhes kirilowii Maxim seed oil (TSO), flavonoids (FLA), and TSO combined with FLA (TSOFLA) intake on hyperlipemia mice caused by a high-fat diet. The pharmacological effects of dietary TSOFLA are correlated to its high content of unsaturated fatty acids and flavonoids. This information can be of interest to the development of food supplements in the field of diseases associated with high-fat intakes such as cardiovascular diseases and adiposis.

Brain targeting of 9c,11t-Conjugated Linoleic Acid, a natural calpain inhibitor, preserves memory and reduces Aβ and P25 accumulation in 5XFAD mice

Deregulation of Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) by binding to the activated calpain product p25, is associated with the onset of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA), a calpain inhibitor, is a metabolite of Punicic Acid (PA), the main component of Pomegranate seed oil (PSO). We have shown recently that long-term administration of Nano-PSO, a nanodroplet formulation of PSO, delays mitochondrial damage and disease advance in a mouse model of genetic Creutzfeldt Jacob disease (CJD). In this project, we first demonstrated that treatment of mice with Nano-PSO, but not with natural PSO, results in the accumulation of CLA in their brains. Next, we tested the cognitive, biochemical and pathological effects of long-term administration of Nano-PSO to 5XFAD mice, modeling for Alzheimer's disease. We show that Nano-PSO treatment prevented age-related cognitive deterioration and mitochondrial oxidative damage in 5XFAD mice. Also, brains of the Nano-PSO treated mice presented reduced accumulation of Aβ and of p25, a calpain product, and increased expression of COX IV-1, a key mitochondrial enzyme. We conclude that administration of Nano-PSO results in the brain targeting of CLA, and suggest that this treatment may prevent/delay the onset of neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD and CJD.

Conjugated Linolenic Acids: Implication in Cancer

Conjugated fatty acids (CFAs) including both conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs) and conjugated linolenic acids (CLNAs) have various health promoting effects. These beneficial effects are comprised by their antioxidant, antiatherogenecity, anticarcinogenic activities, etc. Several reports indicate that CLNAs such as eleostearic acid, punicic acid, jacaric acid, and calendic acid possess anticancer properties. These CLNAs are produced and accumulated in seeds of certain commonly available plants. This review discusses their role in chemoprevention of cancer. Using in vitro as well as in vivo models of cancer, bioactivities of these CLNAs have been explored in detail. CLNAs have been shown to have potent anticancer activity as compared to the CLAs. Although the molecular basis of these effects has been summarized here, more detailed studies are needed to explore the underlying mechanisms. Further clinical trials are obligatory for assessing the safety and efficacy of CLNAs as an anticancer agent.

Effect of Feeding Pomegranate Byproduct on Fatty Acid Composition of Ruminal Digesta, Liver, and Muscle in Lambs

This work investigated the effects of feeding whole pomegranate byproduct (WPB) to lambs on ruminal, liver, and intramuscular fatty acids (FA). Seventeen lambs, divided into two groups, were fed for 36 days with a cereal-based concentrate diet (CON) or with a concentrate diet containing 200 g/kg DM of WPB to partially replace barley and corn (WPB). The dietary treatment did not affect the final body and carcass weight, the dry matter intake, or the average daily gain. However, total polyunsaturated FA (PUFA), linolenic, rumenic (RA), and vaccenic (VA) acid were increased in liver (+15%, +32%, +344%, and +118%, respectively) and muscle (+46%, +38%, +169%, and +89%, respectively) of WPB lambs ( P < 0.05). Punicic acid and three isomers of conjugated linolenic acid were detected exclusively in the rumen and tissues of WPB-lambs. The C18:1 t10/ t11 ra tio in rumen digesta or in tissues was reduced by feeding WPB (-791%, -690%, and -456%, respectively, in rumen, liver and muscle; P < 0.001), suggesting that the WPB prevented the t10-shift rumen biohydrogenation pathway. In conclusion, the inclusion of WPB into a concentrate-based diet can be a strategy to improve the FA composition of meat, without effects on the animal performances.

Mammary cancer risk and serum lipid profile of rats supplemented with pomegranate seed oil and bitter melon extract

The objective of the present study was to determine the influence of dietary supplementation with pomegranate seed oil (PSO) and/or an aqueous extract of dried bitter melon fruits (BME) on breast cancer risk and fatty acid profile in serum of female rats with chemical carcinogen-inflicted mammary tumours. Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 96) were fed control diet or experimental diets supplemented with 0.15 ml PSO/day, BME or jointly PSO and BME. After 21 weeks mammary tumours were subjected to histopathological examination and in serum fatty acids, 8-isoprostaglandin F_2α content and indices of desaturases activity were analysed. Supplementation of the diet with PSO and BME did not inhibit the breast cancer formation. Conjugated linolenic acids (CLnA), present in PSO, were converted into cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), however, its content was lower in groups treated with a carcinogen. A similar tendency was observed for the content of SFA, MUFA, PUFA, 8-iso PGF_2α and the activity of Δ⁶-desaturase. Enhanced pro-carcinogenic effect of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA), caused by applied supplements, may be a result of their influence on DMBA metabolism.

Effect of Pufa Substrates on Fatty Acid Profile of Bifidobacterium breve Ncimb 702258 and CLA/CLNA Production in Commercial Semi-Skimmed Milk

Current research on lipids is highlighting their relevant role in metabolic/signaling pathways. Conjugated fatty acids (CFA), namely isomers of linoleic and linolenic acid (i.e. CLA and CLNA, respectively) can positively modulate inflammation processes and energy metabolism, promoting anti-carcinogenic and antioxidant effects, improved lipid profiles and insulin resistance, among others. Bioactive doses have been indicated to be above 1 g/d, yet these cannot be achieved through a moderate intake (i.e. 1-2 servings) of natural sources, and certain CLA-containing products have limited commercial availability. Such handicaps have fueled research interest in finding alternative fortification strategies. In recent years, screening of dairy products for CFA-producing bacteria has attracted much attention and has led to the identification of some promising strains, including Bifidobacterium breve NCIMB 702258. This strain has shown interesting producing capabilities in model systems as well as positive modulation of lipid metabolism activities in animal studies. Accordingly, the aim of this research work was to assay B. breve NCIMB 702258 in semi-skimmed milk to produce a probiotic fermented dairy product enriched in bioactive CLA and CLNA. The effect of substrates (LA, α-LNA and γ-LNA) on growth performance and membrane fatty acids profile was also studied, as these potential modifications have been associated to stress response. When tested in cys-MRS culture medium, LA, α-LNA and γ-LNA impaired the fatty acid synthesis by B. breve since membrane concentrations for stearic and oleic acids decreased. Variations in the C18:1 c11 and lactobacillic acid concentrations, may suggest that these substrates are also affecting the membrane fluidity. Bifidobacterium breve CFA production capacity was first assessed in cys-MRS with LA, α-LNA, γ-LNA or all substrates together at 0.5 mg/mL each. This strain did not produce CFA from γ-LNA, but converted 31.12% of LA and 68.20% of α-LNA into CLA and CLNA, respectively, after incubation for 24 h at 37 °C. In a second phase, B. breve was inoculated in a commercial semi-skimmed milk with LA, α-LNA or both at 0.5 mg/mL each. Bifidobacterium breve revealed a limited capacity to synthesize CLA isomers, but was able to produce 0.062-0.115 mg/mL CLNA after 24 h at 37 °C. However, organoleptic problems were reported which need to be addressed in future studies. These results show that although CFA were produced at too low concentrations to be able to achieve solely the bioactive dose in one daily portion size, fermented dairy products are a suitable vector to deliver B. breve NCIMB 702258.

Milk fat components with potential anticancer activity-a review

During many years, the milk fat has been unfairly undervalued due to its association with higher levels of cardiovascular diseases, dyslipidaemia or obesity, among others. However, currently, this relationship is being re-evaluated because some of the dairy lipid components have been attributed potential health benefits. Due to this, and based on the increasing incidence of cancer in our society, this review work aims to discuss the state of the art concerning scientific evidence of milk lipid components and reported anticancer properties. Results from the in vitro and in vivo experiments suggest that specific fatty acids (FA) (as butyric acid and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), among others), phospholipids and sphingolipids from milk globule membrane are potential anticarcinogenic agents. However, their mechanism of action remains still unclear due to limited and inconsistent findings in human studies.

Punicic acid: A striking health substance to combat metabolic syndromes in humans

Punicic acid, a bioactive compound of pomegranate seed oil has gained wide attention for their therapeutic potential. Different studies conducted on animal and human models have revealed that punicic acid is very effective against various chronic diseases. Substantial laboratory works has been carried out to elaborate punicic acid effectiveness and mechanism of action in animals. The intention of this review article is to explore the facts about the clinical trials of punicic acid and to discuss different future strategies that can be employed to use it in human clinical trials. Although punicic acid may represent a novel therapeutic unconventional approach for some disorders, still further experimental studies are required to demonstrate its effects in human beings.

Pomegranate seed oil influences the fatty acids profile and reduces the activity of desaturases in livers of Sprague-Dawley rats

The aim of our study was to compare the influence of diet supplementation with pomegranate seed oil - as conjugated linolenic acids (CLnA) source, or conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) and to examine the mechanism of their activity. The content of fatty acids, levels of biomarkers of lipids' oxidation and the activity of key enzymes catalyzing lipids metabolism were measured. Obtained results revealed that conjugated fatty acids significantly decrease the activity of Δ5-desaturase (p=0.0001) and Δ6-desaturase (p=0.0008) and pomegranate seed oil reduces their activity in the most potent way. We confirmed that diet supplementation with pomegranate seed oil - a rich source of punicic acid leads to the increase of cis-9, trans-11 CLA content in livers (p=0.0003). Lack of side effects and beneficial influence on desaturases activity and fatty acids profile claim pomegranate seed oil to become interesting alternative for CLA as functional food.

Oxidative Stability of Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) Seed Oil to Simulated Gastric Conditions and Thermal Stress

The fatty acid composition of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) seed oil (PSO) is dominated by punicic acid, a conjugated linolenic acid (18:3ω-5). As a free fatty acid, punicic acid is rapidly oxidized in air and extensively isomerizes upon acid-catalyzed methylation at 90 °C. In contrast, triacylglycerol-bound punicic acid in PSO was unchanged by simulated gastric conditions and was degraded by 5-7% by severe heating (up to 170 °C for 4 h), as herein assessed by gas chromatography, attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, ¹H and ¹³C NMR, and high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Total polar compounds of PSO were slightly affected by thermal stress, accounting for 5.71, 6.35, and 9.53% (w/w) in the unheated, heated at mild temperature (50 °C, 2 h), and heated at frying temperature (170 °C, 4 h) PSO, respectively. These findings support from a structural standpoint the potential use of PSO as a health-promoting edible oil.

Incorporation and effects of punicic acid on muscle and adipose tissues of rats

BACKGROUND

This study evaluated the effect of pomegranate seed oil (PSO) supplementation, rich in punicic acid (55 %/C18:3-9c,11 t,13c/CLNA), on the lipid profile and on the biochemical and oxidative parameters in the gastrocnemius muscle and adipose tissues of healthy rats. Linseed oil (LO), rich in linolenic acid (52 %/C18:3-9c12c15c/LNA) was used for comparison.

METHODS

Male Wistar rats (n = 56) were distributed in seven groups: control (water); LNA 1 %, 2 % and 4 % (treated with LO); CLNA 1 %, 2 % and 4 % (treated with PSO), po for 40 days. The percentages were compared to the daily feed intake. Fatty acid profile were performed by gas chromatography, antioxidant enzymes activity by spectrophotometer and the adipocytes were isolated by collagenase tissue digestion. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to check for differences between the groups (control, LNAs and CLNAs) and principal component analysis (PCA) was used to project the groups in the factor-place (PC1 vs PC2) based on the biochemical responses assessed in the study.

RESULTS

The fatty acids profile of tissues showed that the LNA percentages were higher in the animals that were fed LO. However, PA was only detected in the adipose tissues. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) was present in all the tissues of the animals supplemented with PSO, in a dose dependent manner, and 9c11t-CLA was the predominant isomer. Nevertheless there were no changes in the total weight gain of the animals, the weights of the tissues, and the oxidative stress parameters in the muscle. In addition, there was an increase in the size of the epididymal fat cells in the groups treated with PSO. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the CLNAs groups were arranged separately with a cumulative variance of 68.47 %.

CONCLUSIONS

The results show that PSO can be used as a source of CLAs but that it does not cause changes in body modulation and does not interfere in the antioxidant activity of healthy rats.

Health Benefits of Punicic Acid: A Review

Punicic acid (PA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid (18:3 n-5), which is classified as a conjugated linolenic acid. PA is also referred as a "super CLnA" whose effect is even more potent than that of an ordinary CLnA. It is found mainly in the seeds of pomegranate fruit (Punica granatum) and Trichoxanthes kirilowii and some other minor sources. It possesses a wide array of biological properties including antidiabetic, antiobesity, antiproliferative, and anticarcinogenic activity against various forms of cancer. In spite of this, PA has not been explored as a nutraceutical or as an ingredient of food products which can be aimed at specific consumer target groups. This review details the various health-beneficial properties of PA and explores the possibilities of its utilization as an active ingredient in various food products.

Modulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR γ) by conjugated fatty acid in obesity and inflammatory bowel disease

Conjugated fatty acids including conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and conjugated linolenic acid (CLNA) have drawn significant attention for their variety of biologically beneficial effects. Evidence suggested that CLA and CLNA could play physiological roles by regulating the expression and activity of PPAR γ. This review summarizes the current understanding of evidence of the role of CLA (cis-9,trans-11 CLA and trans-10,cis-12 CLA) and CLNA (punicic acid and α-eleostearic acid) in modulating the expression or activity of PPAR γ that could in turn be employed as complementary treatment for obesity and inflammatory bowel disease.

Conjugated linolenic acids and their bioactivities: a review

Conjugated linolenic acid (CLNA) is a mixture of positional and geometric isomers of octadecatrienoic acid (α-linolenic acid, cis9,cis12,cis15-18:3 n-3) found in plant seeds. Three 8,10,12-18:3 isomers and four 9,11,13-18:3 isomers have been reported to occur naturally. CLNA isomers such as punicic acid, α-eleostearic acid and jacaric acid have been attributed to exhibit several health benefits that are largely based on animal and in vitro studies. This review has summarized and updated the evidence regarding the metabolism and bioactivities of CLNA isomers, and comprehensively discussed the recent studies on the effects of anti-carcinogenic, lipid metabolism regulation, anti-inflammatory, anti-obese and antioxidant activities of CLNA isomers. The available results may provide a potential application for CLNA isomers from natural sources, especially edible plant seeds, as effective functional food ingredients and dietary supplements for the above mentioned disease management. Further research, especially human randomized clinical trials, is warranted to investigate the detailed physiological effects, bioactivity and molecular mechanism of CLNA.

Jacaric acid and its octadecatrienoic acid geoisomers induce apoptosis selectively in cancerous human prostate cells: a mechanistic and 3-D structure-activity study

Plant-derived non-essential fatty acids are important dietary nutrients, and some are purported to have chemopreventive properties against various cancers, including that of the prostate. In this study, we determined the ability of seven dietary C-18 fatty acids to cause cytotoxicity and induce apoptosis in various types of human prostate cancer cells. These fatty acids included jacaric and punicic acid found in jacaranda and pomegranate seed oil, respectively, three octadecatrienoic geometric isomers (alpha- and beta-calendic and catalpic acid) and two mono-unsaturated C-18 fatty acids (trans- and cis-vaccenic acid). Jacaric acid and four of its octadecatrienoic geoisomers selectively induced apoptosis in hormone-dependent (LNCaP) and -independent (PC-3) human prostate cancer cells, whilst not affecting the viability of normal human prostate epithelial cells (RWPE-1). Jacaric acid induced concentration- and time-depedent LNCaP cell death through activation of intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways resulting in cleavage of PARP-1, modulation of pro- and antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family of proteins and increased cleavage of caspase-3, -8 and -9. Moreover, activation of a cell death-inducing signalling cascade involving death receptor 5 was observed. Jacaric acid induced apoptosis in PC-3 cells by activation of the intrinsic pathway only. The spatial conformation cis, trans, cis of jacaric and punicic acid was shown to play a key role in the increased potency and efficacy of these two fatty acids in comparison to the five other C-18 fatty acids tested. Three-dimensional conformational analysis using the PubChem Database (http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) showed that the cytotoxic potency of the C-18 fatty acids was related to their degree of conformational similarity to our cytotoxic reference compound, punicic acid, based on optimized shape (ST) and feature (CT) similarity scores, with jacaric acid being most 'biosimilar' (ST(ST-opt)=0.81; CT(CT-opt)=0.45). This 3-D analysis of structural similarity enabled us to rank geoisomeric fatty acids according to cytotoxic potency, whereas a 2-D positional assessment of cis/trans structure did not. Our findings provide mechanistic evidence that nutrition-derived non-essential fatty acids have chemopreventive biological activities and Exhibit 3-D structure-activity relationships that could be exploited to develop new strategies for the prevention or treatment of prostate cancer regardless of hormone dependency.

Uptake of conjugated linolenic acids and conversion to cis-9, trans-11-or trans-9, trans-11-conjugated linoleic acids in Caco-2 cells

Dietary oils containing large amounts of conjugated linolenic acids (CLnA) may be regarded as a source of conjugated linoleic acids (CLA), which have been suspected to bear health-promoting properties. Indeed, CLnA can be converted into CLA in mammals. The objective of the present study was to investigate the uptake of CLnA and their metabolism into CLA in Caco-2 cells, as a validated in vitro model of the intestinal barrier. Caco-2 cells were incubated for 24 h in the presence of either α-eleostearic, β-eleostearic, catalpic or punicic acid. We first observed that Caco-2 cells take these CLnA up at different rates and then convert them but with varying efficiency depending on the structure of the Δ13 double bond. Finally, the distribution of CLnA between neutral lipids (NL) and phospholipids appeared to be linked to their number of trans double bonds: the higher the number, the higher the accumulation in the NL fraction.

Effect of pomegranate seed oil on serum TNF-α level in dyslipidemic patients

Pomegranate punicic acid and pomegranate fruit extracts have the potential effects in inhibiting tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and inflammatory diseases. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of pomegranate seed oil (PSO) consumption on serum TNF-α level in dyslipidemic patients. Fifty-one subjects with serum total cholesterol concentration >200 mg/dl and serum triglyceride concentrations >150 mg/dl were randomly assigned into the PSO (n = 25) and placebo (n = 26) groups. Subjects were given 400 mg PSO or placebo capsules twice daily for 4 weeks. Six patients were excluded because of complications or lack of compliance. Serum TNF-α level was measured at baseline and after 4 weeks. Mean (SD) serum concentration of TNF-α decreased from 14.73 ± 5.25 to 13.28 ± 3.79 pg/ml in the PSO group (P = NS). Corresponding values in the placebo group were 12.46 ± 1.67 versus 13.14 ± 1.67 pg/ml (P = NS). In conclusion, administration of PSO in dyslipidemic patients does not affect the serum TNF-α.

Effect of pomegranate seed oil on hyperlipidaemic subjects: a double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial

In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that punicic acid, a type of conjugated fatty acid and the main constituent of pomegranate seed oil (PSO), has anti-atherogenic effects. The present study aimed at determining the effect of PSO treatment on serum lipid profiles. This double-blind placebo-controlled randomised clinical trial included fifty-one hyperlipidaemic subjects, diagnosed according to National Cholesterol Education Program definition, and randomly assigned to the PSO and the control groups. The PSO and placebo groups received 400 mg PSO and placebo twice daily, respectively and were followed up for 4 weeks. Serum concentrations of lipids and lipoproteins were measured before and 4 weeks after intervention. Mean concentration of TAG and the TAG:HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) ratio were significantly decreased after 4 weeks in the PSO group as compared with baseline values (2.75 (sd 1.40) v. 3.45 (sd 1.56) mmol/l, P = 0.009 and 5.7 (sd 4.6) v. 7.5 (sd 5.0), P = 0.031, respectively). The treatment effect was statistically significant in the PSO group as compared with controls in diminution of cholesterol:HDL-C ratio (5.4 (sd 1.5) v. 5.9 (sd 1.4), P < 0.05) adjusted for baseline values. We found a mean difference for PSO v. placebo in HDL-C concentration (0.13 v. - 0.02 mmol/l) and cholesterol:HDL-C ratio ( - 0.42 v. 0.01, P < 0.05). Serum cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and glucose concentrations and body composition variables remained unchanged. It is concluded that administration of PSO for 4 weeks in hyperlipidaemic subjects had favourable effects on lipid profiles including TAG and TAG:HDL-C ratio.