1
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The mechanism of thrombocytopenia caused by cholesterol-conjugated antisense oligonucleotides. Toxicol In Vitro 2023; 89:105569. [PMID: 36801361 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2023.105569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 12/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated thrombocytopenia caused by cholesterol-conjugated antisense oligonucleotides (Chol-ASO). First, we evaluated platelet activation induced by Chol-ASO in mice by flow cytometry after administration of platelet-rich plasma (PRP). An increase in the number of large particle-size events with platelet activation was detected in the Chol-ASO-treated group. In a smear study, numerous platelets were observed to attach to nucleic acid-containing aggregates. A competition binding assay showed that the conjugation of cholesterol to ASOs increased their affinity for glycoprotein VI. Platelet-free plasma was then mixed with Chol-ASO to form aggregates. The assembly of Chol-ASO was confirmed by dynamic light scattering measurements in the concentration range in which the formation of aggregates with plasma components was observed. In conclusion, the mechanism by which Chol-ASOs causes thrombocytopenia is proposed to be as follows: (1) Chol-ASOs form polymers, (2) the nucleic acid portion of the polymers interacts with plasma proteins and platelets, which cross-links them to form aggregates, and (3) platelets bound to aggregates become activated, resulting in platelet aggregation, leading to a decrease in platelet count in vivo. The details of the mechanism revealed in this study could contribute to creating safer oligonucleotide therapies without the risk of thrombocytopenia.
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2
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Delivery of Oligonucleotides: Efficiency with Lipid Conjugation and Clinical Outcome. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14020342. [PMID: 35214074 PMCID: PMC8879684 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14020342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Oligonucleotides have shifted drug discovery into a new paradigm due to their ability to silence the genes and inhibit protein translation. Importantly, they can drug the un-druggable targets from the conventional small-molecule perspective. Unfortunately, poor cellular permeability and susceptibility to nuclease degradation remain as major hurdles for the development of oligonucleotide therapeutic agents. Studies of safe and effective delivery technique with lipid bioconjugates gains attention to resolve these issues. Our review article summarizes the physicochemical effect of well-studied hydrophobic moieties to enhance the cellular entry of oligonucleotides. The structural impacts of fatty acids, cholesterol, tocopherol, and squalene on cellular internalization and membrane penetration in vitro and in vivo were discussed first. The crucial assays for delivery evaluation within this section were analyzed sequentially. Next, we provided a few successful examples of lipid-conjugated oligonucleotides advanced into clinical studies for treating patients with different medical backgrounds. Finally, we pinpointed current limitations and outlooks in this research field along with opportunities to explore new modifications and efficacy studies.
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3
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Wada F, Yamamoto T, Kobayashi T, Tachibana K, Ito KR, Hamasaki M, Kayaba Y, Terada C, Yamayoshi A, Obika S, Harada-Shiba M. Drug discovery and development scheme for liver-targeting bridged nucleic acid antisense oligonucleotides. MOLECULAR THERAPY-NUCLEIC ACIDS 2021; 26:957-969. [PMID: 34760338 PMCID: PMC8560717 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2021.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 08/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) containing bridged nucleic acids (BNAs) have been proven to be very powerful. However, ensuring a reliable discovery and translational development scheme for this class of ASOs with wider therapeutic windows remains a fundamental challenge. We here demonstrate the robustness of our scheme in the context of the selection of ASOs having two different BNA chemistries (2,′4′-BNA/locked nucleic acid [LNA] and amido-bridged nucleic acid [AmNA]) targeting human proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9). The scheme features a two-step process, including (1) a unique and sensitive in vitro screening approach, called Ca2+ enrichment of medium (CEM) transfection, and (2) a ligand-targeted drug delivery approach to better reach target tissues, averting unintended accumulation of ASOs. Using CEM screening, we identified a candidate ASO that shows >70% cholesterol-lowering action in monkeys. An N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) ligand then was appended to the candidate ASO to further broaden the therapeutic margin by altering the molecule’s pharmacokinetics. The GalNAc conjugate, HsPCSK9-1811-LNA, was found to be at least ten times more potent in non-human primates (compared with the unconjugated counterpart), with reduced nephrotoxicity in rats. Overall, we successfully showed that our drug development scheme is better suited for selecting clinically relevant BNA-based ASOs, especially for the treatment of liver-associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumito Wada
- Department of Molecular Innovation in Lipidology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute, 6-1 Kishibe-shinmachi, Suita, Osaka 564-8565, Japan.,Department of Molecular Pathogenesis, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute, 6-1 Kishibe-shinmachi, Suita, Osaka 564-8565, Japan.,Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Yamamoto
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.,Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8131, Japan
| | - Tadayuki Kobayashi
- Department of Molecular Innovation in Lipidology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute, 6-1 Kishibe-shinmachi, Suita, Osaka 564-8565, Japan.,Department of Molecular Pathogenesis, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute, 6-1 Kishibe-shinmachi, Suita, Osaka 564-8565, Japan.,Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Keisuke Tachibana
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Kosuke Ramon Ito
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Mayumi Hamasaki
- Department of Molecular Pathogenesis, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute, 6-1 Kishibe-shinmachi, Suita, Osaka 564-8565, Japan
| | - Yukina Kayaba
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8131, Japan
| | - Chisato Terada
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8131, Japan
| | - Asako Yamayoshi
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8131, Japan
| | - Satoshi Obika
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Mariko Harada-Shiba
- Department of Molecular Innovation in Lipidology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute, 6-1 Kishibe-shinmachi, Suita, Osaka 564-8565, Japan.,Department of Molecular Pathogenesis, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute, 6-1 Kishibe-shinmachi, Suita, Osaka 564-8565, Japan
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4
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Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling of RNAi therapeutics: Opportunities and challenges. Biochem Pharmacol 2021; 189:114468. [PMID: 33577889 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2021.114468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling is a powerful tool with many demonstrated applications in various phases of drug development and regulatory review. RNA interference (RNAi)-based therapeutics are a class of drugs that have unique pharmacokinetic properties and mechanisms of action. With an increasing number of RNAi therapeutics in the pipeline and reaching the market, there is a considerable amount of active research in this area requiring a multidisciplinary approach. The application of PBPK models for RNAi therapeutics is in its infancy and its utility to facilitate the development of this new class of drugs is yet to be fully evaluated. From this perspective, we briefly discuss some of the current computational modeling approaches used in support of efficient development and approval of RNAi therapeutics. Considerations for PBPK model development are highlighted both in a relative context between small molecules and large molecules such as monoclonal antibodies and as it applies to RNAi therapeutics. In addition, the prospects for drawing upon other recognized avenues of PBPK modeling and some of the foreseeable challenges in PBPK model development for these chemical modalities are briefly discussed. Finally, an exploration of the potential application of PBPK model development for RNAi therapeutics is provided. We hope these preliminary thoughts will help initiate a dialogue between scientists in the relevant sectors to examine the value of PBPK modeling for RNAi therapeutics. Such evaluations could help standardize the practice in the future and support appropriate guidance development for strengthening the RNAi therapeutics development program.
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Aho A, Äärelä A, Korhonen H, Virta P. Expanding the Scope of the Cleavable N-(methoxy)oxazolidine Linker for the Synthesis of Oligonucleotide Conjugates. Molecules 2021; 26:490. [PMID: 33477693 PMCID: PMC7838870 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26020490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Oligonucleotides modified by a 2'-deoxy-2'-(N-methoxyamino) ribonucleotide react readily with aldehydes in slightly acidic conditions to yield the corresponding N-(methoxy)oxazolidine-linked oligonucleotide-conjugates. The reaction is reversible and dynamic in slightly acidic conditions, while the products are virtually stable above pH 7, where the reaction is in a ''switched off-state''. Small molecular examinations have demonstrated that aldehyde constituents affect the cleavage rate of the N-(methoxy)oxazolidine-linkage. This can be utilized to adjust the stability of this pH-responsive cleavable linker for drug delivery applications. In the present study, Fmoc-β-Ala-H was immobilized to a serine-modified ChemMatrix resin and used for the automated assembly of two peptidealdehydes and one aldehyde-modified peptide nucleic acid (PNA). In addition, a triantennary N-acetyl-d-galactosamine-cluster with a β-Ala-H unit has been synthesized. These aldehydes were conjugated via N-(methoxy)oxazolidine-linkage to therapeutically relevant oligonucleotide phosphorothioates and one DNA-aptamer in 19-47% isolated yields. The cleavage rates of the conjugates were studied in slightly acidic conditions. In addition to the diverse set of conjugates synthesized, these experiments and a comparison to published data demonstrate that the simple conversion of Gly-H to β-Ala-H residue resulted in a faster cleavage of the N-(methoxy)oxazolidine-linker at pH 5, being comparable (T0.5 ca 7 h) to hydrazone-based structures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Pasi Virta
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland; (A.A.); (A.Ä.); (H.K.)
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6
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Hawner M, Ducho C. Cellular Targeting of Oligonucleotides by Conjugation with Small Molecules. Molecules 2020; 25:E5963. [PMID: 33339365 PMCID: PMC7766908 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25245963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug candidates derived from oligonucleotides (ON) are receiving increased attention that is supported by the clinical approval of several ON drugs. Such therapeutic ON are designed to alter the expression levels of specific disease-related proteins, e.g., by displaying antigene, antisense, and RNA interference mechanisms. However, the high polarity of the polyanionic ON and their relatively rapid nuclease-mediated cleavage represent two major pharmacokinetic hurdles for their application in vivo. This has led to a range of non-natural modifications of ON structures that are routinely applied in the design of therapeutic ON. The polyanionic architecture of ON often hampers their penetration of target cells or tissues, and ON usually show no inherent specificity for certain cell types. These limitations can be overcome by conjugation of ON with molecular entities mediating cellular 'targeting', i.e., enhanced accumulation at and/or penetration of a specific cell type. In this context, the use of small molecules as targeting units appears particularly attractive and promising. This review provides an overview of advances in the emerging field of cellular targeting of ON via their conjugation with small-molecule targeting structures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christian Ducho
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C2 3, 66 123 Saarbrücken, Germany;
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7
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Krasheninina OA, Fishman VS, Lomzov AA, Ustinov AV, Venyaminova AG. Postsynthetic On-Column 2' Functionalization of RNA by Convenient Versatile Method. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E5127. [PMID: 32698484 PMCID: PMC7404181 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21145127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We report a universal straightforward strategy for the chemical synthesis of modified oligoribonucleotides containing functional groups of different structures at the 2' position of ribose. The on-column synthetic concept is based on the incorporation of two types of commercial nucleotide phosphoramidites containing orthogonal 2'-O-protecting groups, namely 2'-O-thiomorpholine-carbothioate (TC, as "permanent") and 2'-O-tert-butyl(dimethyl)silyl (tBDMS, as "temporary"), to RNA during solid-phase synthesis. Subsequently, the support-bound RNA undergoes selective deprotection and follows postsynthetic 2' functionalization of the naked hydroxyl group. This convenient method to tailor RNA, utilizing the advantages of solid phase approaches, gives an opportunity to introduce site-specifically a wide range of linkers and functional groups. By this strategy, a series of RNAs containing diverse 2' functionalities were synthesized and studied with respect to their physicochemical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga A. Krasheninina
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Center for Molecular Biosciences, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80-82, Innsbruck 6020, Austria
| | - Veniamin S. Fishman
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics SB RAS Lavrentiev Ave. 10, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia;
| | - Alexander A. Lomzov
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS Lavrentiev Ave. 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (A.A.L.); (A.G.V.)
| | - Alexey V. Ustinov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS Miklukho-Maklaya Str. 16/10, 117997 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Alya G. Venyaminova
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS Lavrentiev Ave. 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (A.A.L.); (A.G.V.)
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8
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Doxakis E. Therapeutic antisense oligonucleotides for movement disorders. Med Res Rev 2020; 41:2656-2688. [PMID: 32656818 DOI: 10.1002/med.21706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Movement disorders are a group of neurological conditions characterized by abnormalities of movement and posture. They are broadly divided into akinetic and hyperkinetic syndromes. Until now, no effective symptomatic or disease-modifying therapies have been available. However, since many of these disorders are monogenic or have some well-defined genetic component, they represent strong candidates for antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) therapies. ASO therapies are based on the use of short synthetic single-stranded ASOs that bind to disease-related target RNAs via Watson-Crick base-pairing and pleiotropically modulate their function. With information arising from the RNA sequence alone, it is possible to design ASOs that not only alter the expression levels but also the splicing defects of any protein, far exceeding the intervention repertoire of traditional small molecule approaches. Following the regulatory approval of ASO therapies for spinal muscular atrophy and Duchenne muscular dystrophy in 2016, there has been tremendous momentum in testing such therapies for other neurological disorders. This review article initially focuses on the chemical modifications aimed at improving ASO effectiveness, the mechanisms by which ASOs can interfere with RNA function, delivery systems and pharmacokinetics, and the common set of toxicities associated with their application. It, then, describes the pathophysiology and the latest information on preclinical and clinical trials utilizing ASOs for the treatment of Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and ataxias 1, 2, 3, and 7. It concludes with issues that require special attention to realize the full potential of ASO-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Epaminondas Doxakis
- Center of Basic Research, Biomedical Research Foundation, Academy of Athens, Athens, Greece
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9
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Benizri S, Gissot A, Martin A, Vialet B, Grinstaff MW, Barthélémy P. Bioconjugated Oligonucleotides: Recent Developments and Therapeutic Applications. Bioconjug Chem 2019; 30:366-383. [PMID: 30608140 PMCID: PMC6766081 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.8b00761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Oligonucleotide-based agents have the potential to treat or cure almost any disease, and are one of the key therapeutic drug classes of the future. Bioconjugated oligonucleotides, a subset of this class, are emerging from basic research and being successfully translated to the clinic. In this Review, we first briefly describe two approaches for inhibiting specific genes using oligonucleotides-antisense DNA (ASO) and RNA interference (RNAi)-followed by a discussion on delivery to cells. We then summarize and analyze recent developments in bioconjugated oligonucleotides including those possessing GalNAc, cell penetrating peptides, α-tocopherol, aptamers, antibodies, cholesterol, squalene, fatty acids, or nucleolipids. These novel conjugates provide a means to enhance tissue targeting, cell internalization, endosomal escape, target binding specificity, resistance to nucleases, and more. We next describe those bioconjugated oligonucleotides approved for patient use or in clinical trials. Finally, we summarize the state of the field, describe current limitations, and discuss future prospects. Bioconjugation chemistry is at the centerpiece of this therapeutic oligonucleotide revolution, and significant opportunities exist for development of new modification chemistries, for mechanistic studies at the chemical-biology interface, and for translating such agents to the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastien Benizri
- Inserm U1212, F-33076 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS 5320, F-33076 Bordeaux, France
- Universitéde Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, F-33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France
| | - Arnaud Gissot
- Inserm U1212, F-33076 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS 5320, F-33076 Bordeaux, France
- Universitéde Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, F-33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France
| | - Andrew Martin
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Chemistry, and Medicine, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Brune Vialet
- Inserm U1212, F-33076 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS 5320, F-33076 Bordeaux, France
- Universitéde Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, F-33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France
| | - Mark W. Grinstaff
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Chemistry, and Medicine, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Philippe Barthélémy
- Inserm U1212, F-33076 Bordeaux, France
- CNRS 5320, F-33076 Bordeaux, France
- Universitéde Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, F-33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France
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Wada F, Yamamoto T, Ueda T, Sawamura M, Wada S, Harada-Shiba M, Obika S. Cholesterol-GalNAc Dual Conjugation Strategy for Reducing Renal Distribution of Antisense Oligonucleotides. Nucleic Acid Ther 2018; 28:50-57. [PMID: 29360004 DOI: 10.1089/nat.2017.0698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, some studies have reported nephrotoxicity associated with a certain class of antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) in humans. One possibility for reducing the potential nephrotoxicity of ASOs is to alter their pharmacokinetics. In this study, we investigated the effect of a ligand conjugation strategy on the renal accumulation of ASOs. We selected two ligands, cholesterol and N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc), with the purpose of reducing renal distribution and liver targeting, and then designed a series of cholesterol-GalNAc dual conjugated ASOs. The gene-silencing activity of the cholesterol-GalNAc dual conjugated ASO in the liver was slightly lower than that of a GalNAc-conjugated ASO. On the other hand, the renal distribution of the cholesterol-GalNAc dual conjugated ASO was considerably decreased compared with the GalNAc-conjugated ASO, as we expected. As dual conjugation was successful in reducing the renal distribution of ASO, it should be an effective strategy for reducing the nephrotoxic potential of ASOs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumito Wada
- 1 Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University , Suita, Osaka, Japan .,2 Department of Molecular Innovation in Lipidology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute , Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Yamamoto
- 1 Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University , Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Ueda
- 1 Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University , Suita, Osaka, Japan .,2 Department of Molecular Innovation in Lipidology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute , Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Motoki Sawamura
- 1 Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University , Suita, Osaka, Japan .,2 Department of Molecular Innovation in Lipidology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute , Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Wada
- 1 Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University , Suita, Osaka, Japan .,2 Department of Molecular Innovation in Lipidology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute , Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Mariko Harada-Shiba
- 2 Department of Molecular Innovation in Lipidology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute , Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Satoshi Obika
- 1 Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University , Suita, Osaka, Japan
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