1
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Nemethova V, Babiakova P, Teglasova B, Uhelska L, Babelova A, Selc M, Jakic K, Mitrovsky O, Myslivcova D, Zackova M, Poturnayova A, Batorova A, Drgona L, Razga F. ASP210: a potent oligonucleotide-based inhibitor effective against TKI-resistant CML cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2024; 327:C184-C192. [PMID: 38826137 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00188.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
Clinical experience with tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) over the past two decades has shown that, despite the apparent therapeutic benefit, nearly 30% of patients with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) display primary resistance or intolerance to TKIs, and approximately 25% of those treated are forced to switch TKIs at least once during therapy due to acquired resistance. Safe and effective treatment modalities targeting leukemic clones that escape TKI therapy could hence be game changers in the professional management of these patients. Here, we aimed to investigate the efficacy of a novel therapeutic oligonucleotide of unconventional design, called ASP210, to reduce BCR-ABL1 mRNA levels in TKI-resistant CML cells, with the assumption of inducing their apoptosis. Imatinib- and dasatinib-resistant sublines of BCR-ABL1-positive MOLM-7 and CML-T1 cells were established and exposed to 0.25 and 2.5 µM ASP210 for 10 days. RT-qPCR showed a remarkable reduction of the target mRNA level by >99% after a single application. Cell viability was monitored daily by trypan blue staining. In response to the lack of driver oncoprotein BCR-ABL1, TKI-resistant CML cells underwent apoptosis regardless of the presence of the clinically relevant T315I mutation by day 5 after redosing with ASP210. The effect was selective for cancer cells, indicating a favorable safety profile for this therapeutic modality. Furthermore, the spontaneous uptake and high intracellular concentrations of ASP210 suggest its potential to be effective at relatively low doses. The present findings suggest that ASP210 is a promising therapeutic avenue for patients with CML who fail to respond to TKI therapy.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Effective treatment modalities targeting leukemic clones that escape tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) therapy could be game changers in the professional management of patients displaying primary resistance, intolerance, or acquired resistance to TKIs. Although delivering authentic innovations today is more complex than ever, we developed a highly potent and safe oligonucleotide-based modality against BCR-ABL1 mRNA named ASP210 that effectively induces cell death in BCR-ABL1-positive TKI-resistant cells while sparing BCR-ABL1-negative healthy cells.
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MESH Headings
- Humans
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/drug therapy
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/genetics
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/pathology
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm/drug effects
- Protein Kinase Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Fusion Proteins, bcr-abl/genetics
- Fusion Proteins, bcr-abl/antagonists & inhibitors
- Fusion Proteins, bcr-abl/metabolism
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Oligonucleotides/pharmacology
- Apoptosis/drug effects
- Imatinib Mesylate/pharmacology
- Imatinib Mesylate/therapeutic use
- Dasatinib/pharmacology
- Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology
- Cell Survival/drug effects
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Nemethova
- Selecta Biotech SE, Bratislava, Slovakia
- Department of Hematology and Transfusiology, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | | | | | | | - Andrea Babelova
- Department of Nanobiology, Cancer Research Institute, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
- Centre for Advanced Materials Application, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Michal Selc
- Department of Nanobiology, Cancer Research Institute, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
- Centre for Advanced Materials Application, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Kristina Jakic
- Department of Nanobiology, Cancer Research Institute, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Ondrej Mitrovsky
- Department of Proteomics, Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion, Prague, Czech Republic
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Denisa Myslivcova
- Department of Proteomics, Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marketa Zackova
- Department of Proteomics, Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion, Prague, Czech Republic
- Department of Condensed Matter Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Alexandra Poturnayova
- Institute of Molecular Physiology and Genetics, Centre of Biosciences, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Angelika Batorova
- Department of Hematology and Transfusiology, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
- Department of Hematology and Transfusiology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical School Comenius University, Slovak Medical University, University Hospital, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Lubos Drgona
- Department of Oncohematology, Comenius University and National Cancer Institute, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Filip Razga
- Selecta Biotech SE, Bratislava, Slovakia
- Department of Hematology and Transfusiology, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
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2
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Byrnes AE, Roudnicky F, Gogineni A, Soung AL, Xiong M, Hayne M, Heaster-Ford T, Shatz-Binder W, Dominguez SL, Imperio J, Gierke S, Roberts J, Guo J, Ghosh S, Yu C, Roose-Girma M, Elstrott J, Easton A, Hoogenraad CC. A fluorescent splice-switching mouse model enables high-throughput, sensitive quantification of antisense oligonucleotide delivery and activity. CELL REPORTS METHODS 2024; 4:100673. [PMID: 38171361 PMCID: PMC10831955 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmeth.2023.100673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
While antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) are used in the clinic, therapeutic development is hindered by the inability to assay ASO delivery and activity in vivo. Accordingly, we developed a dual-fluorescence, knockin mouse model that constitutively expresses mKate2 and an engineered EGFP that is alternatively spliced in the presence of ASO to induce expression. We first examined free ASO activity in the brain following intracerebroventricular injection revealing EGFP splice-switching is both ASO concentration and time dependent in major central nervous system cell types. We then assayed the impact of lipid nanoparticle delivery on ASO activity after intravenous administration. Robust EGFP fluorescence was observed in the liver and EGFP+ cells were successfully isolated using fluorescence-activated cell sorting. Together, these results show the utility of this animal model in quantifying both cell-type- and organ-specific ASO delivery, which can be used to advance ASO therapeutics for many disease indications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy E Byrnes
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Filip Roudnicky
- Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel, Switzerland
| | - Alvin Gogineni
- Department of Translational Imaging, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Allison L Soung
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Monica Xiong
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Margaret Hayne
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Tiffany Heaster-Ford
- Department of Translational Imaging, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | | | - Sara L Dominguez
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Jose Imperio
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Sarah Gierke
- Department of Pathology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA; Center for Advanced Light Microscopy, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Jasmine Roberts
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Jinglong Guo
- Department of Cancer Immunology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Soumitra Ghosh
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Charles Yu
- Molecular Biology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | | | - Justin Elstrott
- Department of Translational Imaging, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Amy Easton
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Casper C Hoogenraad
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA.
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3
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Hill AC, Becker JP, Slominski D, Halloy F, Søndergaard C, Ravn J, Hall J. Peptide Conjugates of a 2'- O-Methoxyethyl Phosphorothioate Splice-Switching Oligonucleotide Show Increased Entrapment in Endosomes. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:40463-40481. [PMID: 37929104 PMCID: PMC10620785 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c05144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) are short, single-stranded nucleic acid molecules that alter gene expression. However, their transport into appropriate cellular compartments is a limiting factor in their potency. Here, we synthesized splice-switching oligonucleotides (SSOs) previously developed to treat the rare disease erythropoietic protoporphyria. Using chemical ligation-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (CL-qPCR), we quantified the SSOs in cells and subcellular compartments following free uptake. To drive nuclear localization, we covalently conjugated nuclear localization signal (NLS) peptides to a lead 2'-O-methoxyethyl phosphorothioate SSO using thiol-maleimide chemistry. The conjugates and parent SSO displayed similar RNA target-binding affinities. CL-qPCR quantification of the conjugates in cells and subcellular compartments following free uptake revealed one conjugate with better nuclear accumulation relative to the parent SSO. However, compared to the parent SSO, which altered the splicing of the target pre-mRNA, the conjugates were inactive at splice correction under free uptake conditions in vitro. Splice-switching activity could be conferred on the conjugates by delivering them into cells via cationic lipid-mediated transfection or by treating the cells into which the conjugates had been freely taken up with chloroquine, an endosome-disrupting agent. Our results identify the major barrier to the activity of the peptide-oligonucleotide conjugates as endosomal entrapment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa C. Hill
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich
(ETH Zürich), Zürich 8093, Switzerland
| | - J. Philipp Becker
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich
(ETH Zürich), Zürich 8093, Switzerland
| | - Daria Slominski
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich
(ETH Zürich), Zürich 8093, Switzerland
| | - François Halloy
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich
(ETH Zürich), Zürich 8093, Switzerland
| | | | - Jacob Ravn
- Roche
Innovation Center Copenhagen (RICC), Hørsholm 2970, Denmark
| | - Jonathan Hall
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich
(ETH Zürich), Zürich 8093, Switzerland
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4
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Byrnes AE, Dominguez SL, Yen CW, Laufer BI, Foreman O, Reichelt M, Lin H, Sagolla M, Hötzel K, Ngu H, Soendergaard C, Estevez A, Lin HC, Goyon A, Bian J, Lin J, Hinz FI, Friedman BA, Easton A, Hoogenraad CC. Lipid nanoparticle delivery limits antisense oligonucleotide activity and cellular distribution in the brain after intracerebroventricular injection. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2023; 32:773-793. [PMID: 37346977 PMCID: PMC10280097 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2023.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
Antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) therapeutics are being investigated for a broad range of neurological diseases. While ASOs have been effective in the clinic, improving productive ASO internalization into target cells remains a key area of focus in the field. Here, we investigated how the delivery of ASO-loaded lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) affects ASO activity, subcellular trafficking, and distribution in the brain. We show that ASO-LNPs increase ASO activity up to 100-fold in cultured primary brain cells as compared to non-encapsulated ASO. However, in contrast to the widespread ASO uptake and activity observed following free ASO delivery in vivo, LNP-delivered ASOs did not downregulate mRNA levels throughout the brain after intracerebroventricular injection. This lack of activity was likely due to ASO accumulation in cells lining the ventricles and blood vessels. Furthermore, we reveal a formulation-dependent activation of the immune system post dosing, suggesting that LNP encapsulation cannot mask cellular ASO backbone-mediated toxicities. Together, these data provide insights into how LNP encapsulation affects ASO distribution as well as activity in the brain, and a foundation that enables future optimization of brain-targeting ASO-LNPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy E. Byrnes
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Sara L. Dominguez
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Chun-Wan Yen
- Synthetic Molecule Pharmaceutical Sciences, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Benjamin I. Laufer
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
- Department of OMNI Bioinformatics, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Oded Foreman
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
- Department of Pathology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Mike Reichelt
- Department of Pathology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Han Lin
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Meredith Sagolla
- Department of Pathology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Kathy Hötzel
- Department of Pathology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Hai Ngu
- Department of Pathology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Christoffer Soendergaard
- Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Copenhagen, Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Alberto Estevez
- Department of Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Hsiu-Chao Lin
- Synthetic Molecule Pharmaceutical Sciences, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Alexandre Goyon
- Synthetic Molecule Pharmaceutical Sciences, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Juan Bian
- Synthetic Molecule Pharmaceutical Sciences, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Jessica Lin
- Synthetic Molecule Pharmaceutical Sciences, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Flora I. Hinz
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Brad A. Friedman
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
- Department of OMNI Bioinformatics, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Amy Easton
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
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5
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Goto A, Yamamoto S, Iwasaki S. Biodistribution and delivery of oligonucleotide therapeutics to the central nervous system: Advances, challenges, and future perspectives. Biopharm Drug Dispos 2023; 44:26-47. [PMID: 36336817 DOI: 10.1002/bdd.2338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Considerable advances have been made in the research and development of oligonucleotide therapeutics (OTs) for treating central nervous system (CNS) diseases, such as psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders, because of their promising mode of action. However, due to the tight barrier function and complex physiological structure of the CNS, the efficient delivery of OTs to target the brain has been a major challenge, and intensive efforts have been made to overcome this limitation. In this review, we summarize the representative methodologies and current knowledge of biodistribution, along with the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) relationship of OTs in the CNS, which are critical elements for the successful development of OTs for CNS diseases. First, quantitative bioanalysis methods and imaging-based approaches for the evaluation of OT biodistribution are summarized. Next, information available on the biodistribution profile, distribution pathways, quantitative PK/PD modeling, and simulation of OTs following intrathecal or intracerebroventricular administration are reviewed. Finally, the latest knowledge on the drug delivery systems to the brain via intranasal or systemic administration as noninvasive routes for improved patient quality of life is reviewed. The aim of this review is to enrich research on the successful development of OTs by clarifying OT distribution profiles and pathways to the target brain regions or cells, and by identifying points that need further investigation for a mechanistic approach to generate efficient OTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihiko Goto
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Preclinical and Translational Sciences, Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Syunsuke Yamamoto
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Preclinical and Translational Sciences, Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Shinji Iwasaki
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Preclinical and Translational Sciences, Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
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6
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Porosk L, Langel Ü. Approaches for evaluation of novel CPP-based cargo delivery systems. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1056467. [PMID: 36339538 PMCID: PMC9634181 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1056467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) can be broadly defined as relatively short synthetic, protein derived or chimeric peptides. Their most remarkable property is their ability to cross cell barriers and facilitate the translocation of cargo, such as drugs, nucleic acids, peptides, small molecules, dyes, and many others across the plasma membrane. Over the years there have been several approaches used, adapted, and developed for the evaluation of CPP efficacies as delivery systems, with the fluorophore attachment as the most widely used approach. It has become progressively evident, that the evaluation method, in order to lead to successful outcome, should concede with the specialties of the delivery. For characterization and assessment of CPP-cargo a combination of research tools of chemistry, physics, molecular biology, engineering, and other fields have been applied. In this review, we summarize the diverse, in silico, in vitro and in vivo approaches used for evaluation and characterization of CPP-based cargo delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ly Porosk
- Laboratory of Drug Delivery, Institute of Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Ülo Langel
- Laboratory of Drug Delivery, Institute of Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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7
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Becquart C, Stulz R, Thomen A, Dost M, Najafinobar N, Dahlén A, Andersson S, Ewing AG, Kurczy ME. Intracellular Absolute Quantification of Oligonucleotide Therapeutics by NanoSIMS. Anal Chem 2022; 94:10549-10556. [PMID: 35830231 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c02111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Antisense oligonucleotide (ASO)-based therapeutics hold great potential for the treatment of a variety of diseases. Therefore, a better understanding of cellular delivery, uptake, and trafficking mechanisms of ASOs is highly important for early-stage drug discovery. In particular, understanding the biodistribution and quantifying the abundance of ASOs at the subcellular level are needed to fully characterize their activity. Here, we used a combination of electron microscopy and NanoSIMS to assess the subcellular concentrations of a 34S-labeled GalNAc-ASO and a naked ASO in the organelles of primary human hepatocytes. We first cross-validated the method by including a 127I-labeled ASO, finding that the absolute concentration of the lysosomal ASO using two independent labeling strategies gave matching results, demonstrating the strength of our approach. This work also describes the preparation of external standards for absolute quantification by NanoSIMS. For both the 34S and 127I approaches used for our quantification methodology, we established the limit of detection (5 and 2 μM, respectively) and the lower limit of quantification (14 and 5 μM, respectively).
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Affiliation(s)
- Cécile Becquart
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism CVRM, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, 43183 Gothenburg, Sweden.,Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, 41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Rouven Stulz
- Oligonucleotide Discovery, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, 43138 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Maryam Dost
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism CVRM, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, 43183 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Neda Najafinobar
- Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (R&I), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, 43183 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anders Dahlén
- Oligonucleotide Discovery, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, 43138 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Shalini Andersson
- Oligonucleotide Discovery, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, 43138 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Andrew G Ewing
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, 41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Michael E Kurczy
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism CVRM, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, 43183 Gothenburg, Sweden
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8
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Effective Reduction of SARS-CoV-2 RNA Levels Using a Tailor-Made Oligonucleotide-Based RNA Inhibitor. Viruses 2022; 14:v14040685. [PMID: 35458415 PMCID: PMC9029688 DOI: 10.3390/v14040685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In only two years, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had a devastating effect on public health all over the world and caused irreparable economic damage across all countries. Due to the limited therapeutic management of COVID-19 and the lack of tailor-made antiviral agents, finding new methods to combat this viral illness is now a priority. Herein, we report on a specific oligonucleotide-based RNA inhibitor targeting severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It displayed remarkable spontaneous cellular uptake, >94% efficiency in reducing RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) RNA levels in transfected lung cell lines, and >98% efficiency in reducing SARS-CoV-2 RNA levels in samples from patients hospitalized with COVID-19 following a single application.
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9
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Kay E, Stulz R, Becquart C, Lovric J, Tängemo C, Thomen A, Baždarević D, Najafinobar N, Dahlén A, Pielach A, Fernandez-Rodriguez J, Strömberg R, Ämmälä C, Andersson S, Kurczy M. NanoSIMS Imaging Reveals the Impact of Ligand-ASO Conjugate Stability on ASO Subcellular Distribution. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14020463. [PMID: 35214195 PMCID: PMC8876276 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14020463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The delivery of antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) to specific cell types via targeted endocytosis is challenging due to the low cell surface expression of target receptors and inefficient escape of ASOs from the endosomal pathway. Conjugating ASOs to glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP1) leads to efficient target knockdown, specifically in pancreatic β-cells. It is presumed that ASOs dissociate from GLP1 intracellularly to enable an ASO interaction with its target RNA. It is unknown where or when this happens following GLP1-ASO binding to GLP1R and endocytosis. Here, we use correlative nanoscale secondary ion mass spectroscopy (NanoSIMS) and transmission electron microscopy to explore GLP1-ASO subcellular trafficking in GLP1R overexpressing HEK293 cells. We isotopically label both eGLP1 and ASO, which do not affect the eGLP1-ASO conjugate function. We found that the eGLP1 peptide and ASO are not detected at the same level in the same endosomes, within 30 min of GLP1R-HEK293 cell exposure to eGLP1-ASO. When we utilized different linker chemistry to stabilize the GLP1-ASO conjugate, we observed more ASO located with GLP1 compared to cell incubation with the less stable conjugate. Overall, our work suggests that the ASO separates from GLP1 relatively early in the endocytic pathway, and that linker chemistry might impact the GLP1-ASO function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Kay
- Mechanistic and Structural Biology, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, SE-431 83 Gothenburg, Sweden;
| | - Rouven Stulz
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, SE-141 83 Huddinge, Sweden; (R.S.); (R.S.)
- Oligonucleotide Discovery, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, SE-431 83 Gothenburg, Sweden; (A.D.); (S.A.)
- DMPK, Early Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, SE-431 83 Gothenburg, Sweden; (C.B.); (J.L.)
| | - Cécile Becquart
- DMPK, Early Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, SE-431 83 Gothenburg, Sweden; (C.B.); (J.L.)
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, SE 412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden;
| | - Jelena Lovric
- DMPK, Early Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, SE-431 83 Gothenburg, Sweden; (C.B.); (J.L.)
| | - Carolina Tängemo
- Discovery Biology, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, SE-431 83 Gothenburg, Sweden;
| | - Aurélien Thomen
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, SE 412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden;
| | - Dženita Baždarević
- Bioscience, Early Respiratory and Immunology, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, SE-431 83 Gothenburg, Sweden;
| | - Neda Najafinobar
- Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (R&I), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, SE-431 83 Gothenburg, Sweden;
| | - Anders Dahlén
- Oligonucleotide Discovery, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, SE-431 83 Gothenburg, Sweden; (A.D.); (S.A.)
| | - Anna Pielach
- Centre for Cellular Imaging, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, SE-405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden; (A.P.); (J.F.-R.)
| | - Julia Fernandez-Rodriguez
- Centre for Cellular Imaging, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, SE-405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden; (A.P.); (J.F.-R.)
| | - Roger Strömberg
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, SE-141 83 Huddinge, Sweden; (R.S.); (R.S.)
| | - Carina Ämmälä
- Bioscience, Early Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, SE-431 83 Gothenburg, Sweden;
| | - Shalini Andersson
- Oligonucleotide Discovery, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, SE-431 83 Gothenburg, Sweden; (A.D.); (S.A.)
| | - Michael Kurczy
- DMPK, Early Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, SE-431 83 Gothenburg, Sweden; (C.B.); (J.L.)
- Correspondence:
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10
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Deprey K, Batistatou N, Debets MF, Godfrey J, VanderWall KB, Miles RR, Shehaj L, Guo J, Andreucci A, Kandasamy P, Lu G, Shimizu M, Vargeese C, Kritzer JA. Quantitative Measurement of Cytosolic and Nuclear Penetration of Oligonucleotide Therapeutics. ACS Chem Biol 2022; 17:348-360. [PMID: 35034446 PMCID: PMC9252293 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.1c00830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A major obstacle in the development of effective oligonucleotide therapeutics is a lack of understanding about their cytosolic and nuclear penetration. To address this problem, we have applied the chloroalkane penetration assay (CAPA) to oligonucleotide therapeutics. CAPA was used to quantitate cytosolic delivery of antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) and siRNAs and to explore the effects of a wide variety of commonly used chemical modifications and their patterning. We evaluated potential artifacts by exploring the effects of serum, comparing activity data and CAPA data, and assessing the impact of the chloroalkane tag and its linker chemistry. We also used viral transduction to expand CAPA to the nuclear compartment in epithelial and neuronal cell lines. Using this enhanced method, we measured a 48-h time course of nuclear penetration for a panel of chemically diverse modified RNAs. Moving forward, CAPA will be a useful tool for deconvoluting the complex processes of endosomal uptake, escape into the cytosol, and subcellular trafficking of oligonucleotide therapeutics in therapeutically relevant cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Deprey
- Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Nefeli Batistatou
- Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Marjoke F. Debets
- Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, United States
| | - Jack Godfrey
- Wave Life Sciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Kirstin B. VanderWall
- Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, United States
| | - Rebecca R. Miles
- Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, United States
| | - Livia Shehaj
- Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Jiaxing Guo
- Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Amy Andreucci
- Wave Life Sciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | | | - Genliang Lu
- Wave Life Sciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Mamoru Shimizu
- Wave Life Sciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Chandra Vargeese
- Wave Life Sciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Joshua A. Kritzer
- Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States,corresponding author:
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11
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Schmidt S, Gallego SF, Zelnik ID, Kovalchuk S, Albæk N, Sprenger RR, Øverup C, Pewzner-Jung Y, Futerman AH, Lindholm MW, Jensen ON, Ejsing CS. Silencing of ceramide synthase 2 in hepatocytes modulates plasma ceramide biomarkers predictive of cardiovascular death. Mol Ther 2021; 30:1661-1674. [PMID: 34400330 PMCID: PMC9077316 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2021.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging clinical data show that three ceramide molecules, Cer d18:1/16:0, Cer d18:1/24:1, and Cer d18:1/24:0, are biomarkers of a fatal outcome in patients with cardiovascular disease. This finding raises basic questions about their metabolic origin, their contribution to disease pathogenesis, and the utility of targeting the underlying enzymatic machinery for treatment of cardiometabolic disorders. Here, we outline the development of a potent N-acetylgalactosamine-conjugated antisense oligonucleotide engineered to silence ceramide synthase 2 specifically in hepatocytes in vivo. We demonstrate that this compound reduces the ceramide synthase 2 mRNA level and that this translates into efficient lowering of protein expression and activity as well as Cer d18:1/24:1 and Cer d18:1/24:0 levels in liver. Intriguingly, we discover that the hepatocyte-specific antisense oligonucleotide also triggers a parallel modulation of blood plasma ceramides, revealing that the biomarkers predictive of cardiovascular death are governed by ceramide biosynthesis in hepatocytes. Our work showcases a generic therapeutic framework for targeting components of the ceramide enzymatic machinery to disentangle their roles in disease causality and to explore their utility for treatment of cardiometabolic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Schmidt
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Copenhagen, 2970 Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Sandra F Gallego
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, VILLUM Center for Bioanalytical Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, 5230 Odense, Denmark
| | - Iris Daphne Zelnik
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Sergey Kovalchuk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, VILLUM Center for Bioanalytical Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, 5230 Odense, Denmark
| | - Nanna Albæk
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Copenhagen, 2970 Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Richard R Sprenger
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, VILLUM Center for Bioanalytical Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, 5230 Odense, Denmark
| | - Charlotte Øverup
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Copenhagen, 2970 Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Yael Pewzner-Jung
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Anthony H Futerman
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Marie W Lindholm
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Copenhagen, 2970 Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Ole N Jensen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, VILLUM Center for Bioanalytical Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, 5230 Odense, Denmark
| | - Christer S Ejsing
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, VILLUM Center for Bioanalytical Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, 5230 Odense, Denmark; Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany.
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12
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Michel S, Klar R, Jaschinski F. Investigation of the Activity of Antisense Oligonucleotides Targeting Multiple Genes by RNA-Sequencing. Nucleic Acid Ther 2021; 31:427-435. [PMID: 34251864 DOI: 10.1089/nat.2020.0932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Locked nucleic acid-modified antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) can achieve strongly different degrees of target knockdown despite having similar biophysical properties and 100% homology with their target. The determinants for this observation remain largely unknown. We used multi-specific ASOs that have 100% sequence complementarity with a common target (IDO1) and a different number of diverse targets and investigated their effect on gene expression in a cell line by RNA-sequencing. We observed a significant higher chance for downregulation of long genes compared to short genes, of genes with high compared to lower expression, and of genes that have more than one binding site for the respective ASO. By investigating the expression of genes that have binding sites for more than one ASO we identified the individual binding site being an important determinant for activity. Under the selected experimental conditions we have not seen indications that availability of RNase H is a limiting factor as the number of degraded target RNA molecules correlated significantly with the number of predicted target RNA molecules. Taken together, by using multi-specific ASOs as tool compounds we identified determinants for ASO activity that can be taken into consideration to improve the selection process of highly potent and selective ASOs in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Michel
- ISecarna Pharmaceuticals, GmbH & Co. KG, Planegg, Germany
| | - Richard Klar
- ISecarna Pharmaceuticals, GmbH & Co. KG, Planegg, Germany
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13
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Hansen HF, Albaek N, Hansen BR, Shim I, Bohr H, Koch T. In vivo uptake of antisense oligonucleotide drugs predicted by ab initio quantum mechanical calculations. Sci Rep 2021; 11:6321. [PMID: 33737567 PMCID: PMC7973520 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-85453-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver and kidney uptake and antisense activity is studied for a series of Locked Nucleic Acid (LNA) oligonucleotides with fully stereo-defined, internucleoside linkages. These stereo-specific phosphorothioates are made with a newly developed synthesis method and are being analyzed both theoretically and experimentally. Their structures are obtained theoretically by using many-body Schrödinger equations applied to a group of 11 stereo-defined LNA antisense oligonucleotides selected for biological experiments. The fully converged electronic structures were obtained from ab initio quantum calculations providing the specific electronic structures. One important result was the observation that the calculated electronic structure, represented by the iso-surface area of the electron density in Å2, correlated linearly with LNA oligonucleotide uptake in the liver and kidney. This study also shows that more complex biological phenomena, such as drug activity, will require more molecular and cellular identifiers than used here before a correlation can be found. Establishing biological correlations between quantum mechanical (QM) calculated structures and antisense oligonucleotides is novel, and this method may constitute new tools in drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nanna Albaek
- Roche Innovation Center Copenhagen, Fremtidsvej 3, 2970, Hoersholm, Denmark
| | - Bo Rode Hansen
- Roche Innovation Center Copenhagen, Fremtidsvej 3, 2970, Hoersholm, Denmark
| | - Irene Shim
- Department of Chemistry, B-206-DTU, The Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Henrik Bohr
- Department of Chemical Engineering, B-229-DTU, The Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Troels Koch
- Roche Innovation Center Copenhagen, Fremtidsvej 3, 2970, Hoersholm, Denmark
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14
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Deprey K, Batistatou N, Kritzer JA. A critical analysis of methods used to investigate the cellular uptake and subcellular localization of RNA therapeutics. Nucleic Acids Res 2020; 48:7623-7639. [PMID: 32644123 PMCID: PMC7430645 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkaa576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA therapeutics are a promising strategy to treat genetic diseases caused by the overexpression or aberrant splicing of a specific protein. The field has seen major strides in the clinical efficacy of this class of molecules, largely due to chemical modifications and delivery strategies that improve nuclease resistance and enhance cell penetration. However, a major obstacle in the development of RNA therapeutics continues to be the imprecise, difficult, and often problematic nature of most methods used to measure cell penetration. Here, we review these methods and clearly distinguish between those that measure total cellular uptake of RNA therapeutics, which includes both productive and non-productive uptake, and those that measure cytosolic/nuclear penetration, which represents only productive uptake. We critically analyze the benefits and drawbacks of each method. Finally, we use key examples to illustrate how, despite rigorous experimentation and proper controls, our understanding of the mechanism of gymnotic uptake of RNA therapeutics remains limited by the methods commonly used to analyze RNA delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Deprey
- Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, 62 Talbot Ave, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Nefeli Batistatou
- Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, 62 Talbot Ave, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Joshua A Kritzer
- Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, 62 Talbot Ave, Medford, MA 02155, USA
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15
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Antisense drug discovery and development technology considered in a pharmacological context. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 189:114196. [PMID: 32800852 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.114196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
When coined, the term "antisense" included oligonucleotides of any structure, with any chemical modification and designed to work through any post-RNA hybridization mechanism. However, in practice the term "antisense" has been used to describe single stranded oligonucleotides (ss ASOs) designed to hybridize to RNAswhile the term "siRNA" has come to mean double stranded oligonucleotides designed to activate Ago2. However, the two approaches share many common features. The medicinal chemistry developed for ASOs greatly facilitated the development of siRNA technology and remains the chemical basis for both approaches. Many of challenges faced and solutions achieved share many common features. In fact, because ss ASOs can be designed to activate Ago2, the two approaches intersect at this remarkably important protein. There are also meaningful differences. The pharmacokinetic properties are quite different and thus potential routes of delivery differ. ASOs may be designedto use a variety of post-RNA binding mechanismswhile siRNAs depend solely on the robust activity of Ago2. However, siRNAs and ASOs are both used for therapeutic purposes and both must be and can be understood in a pharmacological context. Thus, the goals of this review are to put ASOs in pharmacological context and compare their behavior as pharmacological agents to the those of siRNAs.
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16
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Halloy F, Iyer P, Ćwiek P, Ghidini A, Barman-Aksözen J, Wildner-Verhey van Wijk N, Theocharides APA, Minder E, Schneider-Yin X, Schümperli D, Hall J. Delivery of oligonucleotides to bone marrow to modulate ferrochelatase splicing in a mouse model of erythropoietic protoporphyria. Nucleic Acids Res 2020; 48:4658-4671. [PMID: 32313951 PMCID: PMC7229840 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkaa229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP) is a rare genetic disease in which patients experience acute phototoxic reactions after sunlight exposure. It is caused by a deficiency in ferrochelatase (FECH) in the heme biosynthesis pathway. Most patients exhibit a loss-of-function mutation in trans to an allele bearing a SNP that favors aberrant splicing of transcripts. One viable strategy for EPP is to deploy splice-switching oligonucleotides (SSOs) to increase FECH synthesis, whereby an increase of a few percent would provide therapeutic benefit. However, successful application of SSOs in bone marrow cells is not described. Here, we show that SSOs comprising methoxyethyl-chemistry increase FECH levels in cells. We conjugated one SSO to three prototypical targeting groups and administered them to a mouse model of EPP in order to study their biodistribution, their metabolic stability and their FECH splice-switching ability. The SSOs exhibited distinct distribution profiles, with increased accumulation in liver, kidney, bone marrow and lung. However, they also underwent substantial metabolism, mainly at their linker groups. An SSO bearing a cholesteryl group increased levels of correctly spliced FECH transcript by 80% in the bone marrow. The results provide a promising approach to treat EPP and other disorders originating from splicing dysregulation in the bone marrow.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Halloy
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Pavithra S Iyer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Paulina Ćwiek
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alice Ghidini
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Alexandre P A Theocharides
- Department of Medical Oncology and Hematology, University Hospital and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Daniel Schümperli
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jonathan Hall
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
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