Simultaneous detections of 27 cytokines during cerebral wound healing by multiplexed bead-based immunoassay for wound age estimation

Extrapolation study for determining the time since injury in a rat subcutaneous hematoma model utilizing ATR-FTIR spectroscopy

The determination of the time of an injury has been a major problem in forensic science due to the lack of objective, reliable and portable methods. In this study, a subcutaneous hemorrhage model in rats was established over six days, and attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy coupled with chemometrics was used to determine the time since injury. Initial principal component analysis (PCA) showed variance among hematoma sites. Subsequently, spectral data were acquired to establish a dependable partial least square (PLS) regression model with predictive abilities. The root mean square error of cross-validation (RMSECV) and the root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) values produced by a genetic algorithm (GA) were 0.64 d (R2 = 0.88) and 0.57 d (R2 = 0.90), respectively. Few variables were involved in the model, and significantly better results were obtained in comparison to the conventional full-spectrum PLS model. In combination with the results of variable importance in projection (VIP) scores, all components, including proteins, nucleic acids and phospholipids, provided inferences regarding the samples at different time points; additionally, amide I and II bands represented the secondary structure of proteins and provided the largest contribution. Based on our preliminary study, the combination of swift and nondamaging ATR-FTIR spectroscopy with chemometrics could prove to be an advantageous approach for gauging the age of an injury in the forensic field.

Effectiveness of topical administration of platelet-rich plasma on the healing of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus-infected full-thickness wound model

This study aimed to investigate the wound-healing activity of animal platelet-rich plasma (PRP) in wounds infected with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in rats. After wound induction, the rats were divided into three groups: noninfected animals treated with PRP (PRP group), MRSA-infected animals treated with mupirocin (standard control group), and MRSA-infected animals treated with PRP (MRSA+PRP group). Scratch assays, MTT test, and live/dead cells were also investigated. Total bacterial count, parameters of wound area, histopathological assessment, and expressions of IL-1β, TNF-α, iNOS, PDGF, FGF-2, and TGF-β mRNA levels and immunofluorescent staining of CD31 and collagen type 1 were assessed. The results showed that culture with PRP increased migration. PRP only showed cytotoxicity in a concentration of 100%. Topical application of PRP (50 µL) reduced the wound area and total bacterial count compared with the control group (P<0.05). The mRNA levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, and iNOS expression on days 7 and 14 (P<0.05) decreased in the treated groups compared with control rats. The mRNA levels of PDGF and TGF-β expression (P<0.05) increased in the treatment groups compared with control rats on days 3 and 7 (P<0.05). FGF-2 expression was significantly higher in the treated groups compared with the control group on days 7 and 14 (P<0.05). Moreover, positive expressions of macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), CD31, collagen type 1 and cytokeratin proteins keratinocyte proliferation, and re-epithelization were significantly (P<0.05) increased in both PRP and MRSA+PRP-treated groups compared with the control groups on days 7 and 14. Topical administration of PRP accelerated the wound healing in MRSA-infected wound by decreasing the inflammation and improving the proliferative phase.

State-of-the-Art on Wound Vitality Evaluation: A Systematic Review

The vitality demonstration refers to determining if an injury has been caused ante- or post-mortem, while wound age means to evaluate how long a subject has survived after the infliction of an injury. Histology alone is not enough to prove the vitality of a lesion. Recently, immunohistochemistry, biochemistry, and molecular biology have been introduced in the field of lesions vitality and age demonstration. The study was conducted according to the preferred reporting items for systematic review (PRISMA) protocol. The search terms were "wound", "lesion", "vitality", "evaluation", "immunohistochemistry", "proteins", "electrolytes", "mRNAs", and "miRNAs" in the title, abstract, and keywords. This evaluation left 137 scientific papers. This review aimed to collect all the knowledge on vital wound demonstration and provide a temporal distribution of the methods currently available, in order to determine the age of lesions, thus helping forensic pathologists in finding a way through the tangled jungle of wound vitality evaluation.

Blood-brain barrier opening by intracarotid artery hyperosmolar mannitol induces sterile inflammatory and innate immune responses

Intracarotid arterial hyperosmolar mannitol (ICAHM) blood-brain barrier disruption (BBBD) is effective and safe for delivery of therapeutics for central nervous system malignancies. ICAHM osmotically alters endothelial cells and tight junction integrity to achieve BBBD. However, occurrence of neuroinflammation following hemispheric BBBD by ICAHM remains unknown. Temporal proteomic changes in rat brains following ICAHM included increased damage-associated molecular patterns, cytokines, chemokines, trophic factors, and cell adhesion molecules, indicative of a sterile inflammatory response (SIR). Proteomic changes occurred within 5 min of ICAHM infusion and returned to baseline by 96 h. Transcriptomic analyses following ICAHM BBBD further supported an SIR. Immunohistochemistry revealed activated astrocytes, microglia, and macrophages. Moreover, proinflammatory proteins were elevated in serum, and proteomic and histological findings from the contralateral hemisphere demonstrated a less pronounced SIR, suggesting neuroinflammation beyond regions of ICAHM infusion. Collectively, these results demonstrate ICAHM induces a transient SIR that could potentially be harnessed for neuroimmunomodulation.

Evaluation of M2-like macrophage enrichment after diffuse traumatic brain injury through transient interleukin-4 expression from engineered mesenchymal stromal cells

BACKGROUND

Appropriately modulating inflammation after traumatic brain injury (TBI) may prevent disabilities for the millions of those inflicted annually. In TBI, cellular mediators of inflammation, including macrophages and microglia, possess a range of phenotypes relevant for an immunomodulatory therapeutic approach. It is thought that early phenotypic modulation of these cells will have a cascading healing effect. In fact, an anti-inflammatory, "M2-like" macrophage phenotype after TBI has been associated with neurogenesis, axonal regeneration, and improved white matter integrity (WMI). There already exist clinical trials seeking an M2-like bias through mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs). However, MSCs do not endogenously synthesize key signals that induce robust M2-like phenotypes such as interleukin-4 (IL-4).

METHODS

To enrich M2-like macrophages in a clinically relevant manner, we augmented MSCs with synthetic IL-4 mRNA to transiently express IL-4. These IL-4 expressing MSCs (IL-4 MSCs) were characterized for expression and functionality and then delivered in a modified mouse TBI model of closed head injury. Groups were assessed for functional deficits and MR imaging. Brain tissue was analyzed through flow cytometry, multi-plex ELISA, qPCR, histology, and RNA sequencing.

RESULTS

We observed that IL-4 MSCs indeed induce a robust M2-like macrophage phenotype and promote anti-inflammatory gene expression after TBI. However, here we demonstrate that acute enrichment of M2-like macrophages did not translate to improved functional or histological outcomes, or improvements in WMI on MR imaging. To further understand whether dysfunctional pathways underlie the lack of therapeutic effect, we report transcriptomic analysis of injured and treated brains. Through this, we discovered that inflammation persists despite acute enrichment of M2-like macrophages in the brain.

CONCLUSION

The results demonstrate that MSCs can be engineered to induce a stronger M2-like macrophage response in vivo. However, they also suggest that acute enrichment of only M2-like macrophages after diffuse TBI cannot orchestrate neurogenesis, axonal regeneration, or improve WMI. Here, we also discuss our modified TBI model and methods to assess severity, behavioral studies, and propose that IL-4 expressing MSCs may also have relevance in other cavitary diseases or in improving biomaterial integration into tissues.

Temporal expression of wound healing-related genes inform wound age estimation in rats after a skeletal muscle contusion: a multivariate statistical model analysis

Although many time-dependent parameters involved in wound healing have been exhaustively investigated, establishing an objective and reliable means for estimating wound age remains a challenge. In this study, 78 Sprague-Dawley rats were divided randomly into a control group and contusion groups at 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, and 48 h post-injury (n = 6 per group). The expression of 35 wound healing-related genes was explored in contused skeletal muscle by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Differences between the groups were assessed by partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). The results show that the samples were classified into three groups by wound age (4-12, 16-24, and 28-48 h). A Fisher discriminant analysis model of 14 selected genes was constructed, and 94.9% cross-validated grouped cases were correctly classified. A PLS regression analysis using 14 genes showed reasonable internal predictive validity, with a root mean squared error of cross-validation of approximately 8 h. To examine whether the prediction models were capable of analyzing new (ungrouped) cases, an external validation was carried out using the expression data from an additional 30 rats. Approximately 76.7% of ungrouped cases were correctly classified, which was a lower proportion than that for cross-validation. Similarly, the prediction results of the PLS model showed lower relatively external predictive validity (root mean squared error of prediction = 11 h) than internal predictive validity. Although the prediction results were less accurate than expected, the gene expression modeling and multivariate analyses showed great potential for estimating injury time. These multivariate methods may be valuable when devising future wound time estimation strategies.

Vitality and wound-age estimation in forensic pathology: review and future prospects

Determining the age of a wound is challenging in forensic pathology, but it can contribute to the reconstruction of crime scenes and lead to arrest of suspects. Forensic scholars have tended to focus on evaluating wound vitality and determining the time elapsed since the wound was sustained. Recent progress in forensic techniques, particularly high-throughput analyses, has enabled evaluation of materials at the cellular and molecular levels, as well as simultaneous assessment of multiple markers. This paper provides an update on wound-age estimation in forensic pathology, summarizes the recent literature, and considers useful additional information provided by each marker. Finally, the future prospects for estimating wound age in forensic practise are discussed with the hope of providing something useful for further study.

Perceived Stress and Surgical Wound Cytokine Patterns

This was a pilot study to examine pre- and postoperative stress experienced by women who were undergoing autologous breast reconstruction and how stress might impact wound healing, specifically examining cytokines and other chemical mediators in the wound environment. A nonexperimental descriptive design over time was utilized. Participants were women who were undergoing autologous abdominal breast reconstruction for breast cancer (N = 20). Data were collected preoperatively and at 24, 48, 72, and 96 hr postsurgery. Complications were monitored intraoperatively and up to 30 days postsurgery. Psychological stress was measured with the 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), the Impact of Events Scale-Revised (IES-R), and a 100-mm Visual Analog Scale (VAS). Cytokines were assayed using the 27-plex kit with a Bio-Plex Plus. Although breast cancer is considered a stressor, in this sample of women, scores of the PSS, IES-R, and VAS showed that in fact these participants experienced low levels of psychological stress. All measured biochemical mediators in serum and wound fluid were detected and trends were identified. IL-1ra, IL-6, IL-8, G-CSF, IP-10, MCP-1, MIP-1β, RANTES, and VEGF were present in the highest concentrations. Significant changes in levels of cytokines in wound fluid were observed in IL-1β, IL-2, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-9, IL-10, IL-17, FGF-basic, G-CSF, MIP-1α, PDGF-bb, MIP-1β, RANTES, and TNF-α. The remaining cytokine concentrations stayed stable over time. These findings suggest that although these women were not experiencing high levels of stress, meaningful cytokine patterns were detected.

Glioblastoma-synthesized G-CSF and GM-CSF contribute to growth and immunosuppression: Potential therapeutic benefit from dapsone, fenofibrate, and ribavirin

Increased ratio of circulating neutrophils to lymphocytes is a common finding in glioblastoma and other cancers. Data reviewed establish that any damage to brain tissue tends to cause an increase in G-CSF and/or GM-CSF (G(M)-CSF) synthesized by the brain. Glioblastoma cells themselves also synthesize G(M)-CSF. G(M)-CSF synthesized by brain due to damage by a growing tumor and by the tumor itself stimulates bone marrow to shift hematopoiesis toward granulocytic lineages away from lymphocytic lineages. This shift is immunosuppressive and generates the relative lymphopenia characteristic of glioblastoma. Any trauma to brain—be it blunt, sharp, ischemic, infectious, cytotoxic, tumor encroachment, or radiation—increases brain synthesis of G(M)-CSF. G(M)-CSF are growth and motility enhancing factors for glioblastomas. High levels of G(M)-CSF contribute to the characteristic neutrophilia and lymphopenia of glioblastoma. Hematopoietic bone marrow becomes entrained with, directed by, and contributes to glioblastoma pathology. The antibiotic dapsone, the lipid-lowering agent fenofibrate, and the antiviral drug ribavirin are Food and Drug Administration– and European Medicines Agency–approved medicines that have potential to lower synthesis or effects of G(M)-CSF and thus deprive a glioblastoma of some of the growth promoting contributions of bone marrow and G(M)-CSF.

Why whey? Camel whey protein as a new dietary approach to the management of free radicals and for the treatment of different health disorders

The balance between free radicals and antioxidants is an important factor for maintaining health and slowing disease progression. The use of antioxidants, particularly natural antioxidants, has become an important strategy for dealing with this cause of widespread diseases. Natural antioxidants have been used as therapeutic tools against many diseases because they are safe, effective, and inexpensive and are among the most commonly used adjuvants in the treatment of several diseases. Camel whey protein (CWP) is considered a strong natural antioxidant because it decreases oxidative stress, enhances immune system function, and increases glutathione levels. The structure of CWP is very similar to that of other types of whey protein from different types of milk. CWP contains many components, such as lactoferrin (LF), lactalbumin, lactoglobulins, lactoperoxidase, and lysozyme, and is rich in immunoglobulins. However, in contrast to other WPs, CWP lacks β-lactoglobulin, the main cause of milk allergies in children. The components of CWP have many beneficial effects, including stimulation of both innate and adaptive immunity and anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antibacterial, and antiviral activities. Recently, it has been shown that CWP and its unique components can facilitate the treatment of impaired diabetic wound healing. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the protective effects of CWP in human and other animal disorders are not fully understood. Therefore, the current review presents a concise summary of the scientific evidence of the beneficial effects of CWP to support its therapeutic use in disease treatment and nutritional intervention.

Disrupting the blood-brain barrier by focused ultrasound induces sterile inflammation

MRI-guided pulsed focused ultrasound (pFUS) combined with systemic infusion of ultrasound contrast agent microbubbles (MB) causes localized blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption that is currently being advocated for increasing drug or gene delivery in neurological diseases. The mechanical acoustic cavitation effects of opening the BBB by low-intensity pFUS+MB, as evidenced by contrast-enhanced MRI, resulted in an immediate damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) response including elevations in heat-shock protein 70, IL-1, IL-18, and TNFα indicative of a sterile inflammatory response (SIR) in the parenchyma. Concurrent with DAMP presentation, significant elevations in proinflammatory, antiinflammatory, and trophic factors along with neurotrophic and neurogenesis factors were detected; these elevations lasted 24 h. Transcriptomic analysis of sonicated brain supported the proteomic findings and indicated that the SIR was facilitated through the induction of the NFκB pathway. Histological evaluation demonstrated increased albumin in the parenchyma that cleared by 24 h along with TUNEL+ neurons, activated astrocytes, microglia, and increased cell adhesion molecules in the vasculature. Infusion of fluorescent beads 3 d before pFUS+MB revealed the infiltration of CD68+ macrophages at 6 d postsonication, as is consistent with an innate immune response. pFUS+MB is being considered as part of a noninvasive adjuvant treatment for malignancy or neurodegenerative diseases. These results demonstrate that pFUS+MB induces an SIR compatible with ischemia or mild traumatic brain injury. Further investigation will be required before this approach can be widely implemented in clinical trials.

Evaluation of Vitality in the Experimental Hanging Model of Rats by Using Immunohistochemical IL-1β Antibody Staining

INTRODUCTION

Hanging is the most common suicide method in the world, and the discrimination of antemortem-postmortem hanging must be done at autopsy. The aim of this experimental study was to examine the immunohistochemical expression of IL-1β antibody at the hanging mark skin samples of rats to discriminate antemortem and postmortem hangings.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 20 Wistar albino rats were used for this study. The groups were as follows: A-1, antemortem control group; A-2, antemortem second-hour hanging mark skin samples; A-3, antemortem 24th-hour hanging mark skin samples; A-4, antemortem 72nd-hour hanging mark skin samples; B-1, postmortem control group; and B-2, postmortem second-hour hanging mark skin samples. Interleukin-1β immunostaining was performed to all tissue samples.

RESULTS

For epidermal cells, group A-1 samples did not show IL-1β immunostaining, group A-2 samples were severely immunostained, and groups A-3 and A-4 samples' staining were slightly decreased. There was no IL-1β antibody staining in groups B-1 and B-2 samples. For adnexal cells, groups A-1 and B-1 samples did not show IL-1β immunostaining, staining of group A-2 samples was mild to severe, and groups A-3 and A-4 samples' staining were slightly decreased. Half of the group B-2 samples did not show IL-1β immunostaining. For subepidermal cells, most of the samples of groups A-1 and B-1 showed slight immunostaining, groups A-2 and B-2 samples' staining were mild to severe, and there were slight immunostaining in groups A-3 and A-4 samples. The majority of vascular structure cells did not show IL-1β immunostaining.

CONCLUSION

Interleukin-1β immunostaining of epidermal cells can discriminate antemortem-postmortem hangings, but vascular structure cells and subepidermal cells cannot discriminate vital hangings.

Accelerating skin wound healing by M-CSF through generating SSEA-1 and -3 stem cells in the injured sites

Wound healing is a complicated process requiring the collaborative efforts of different cell lineages. Our recent studies have found that one subset of hematopoietic cells can be induced to dedifferentiate into multipotent stem cells by means of a proliferating fibroblast releasable factor, M-CSF. Understanding the importance of stem cells on skin wound healing, here we evaluate the biological significance of M-CSF on skin wound healing. In an in vivo mouse skin excisional wound model, we found that SSEA-positive stem cells were present in wounded but not normal skin. After isolating skin cells from either normal or wounded skin by collagenase digestion, and analyzing the SSEA-1 positive cells by flow cytometry, we found a significant increase in the number of SSEA-1 positive cells in wounded skin. Topical application of M-CSF in skin wounds accelerated healing remarkably, while application of M-CSF-neutralizing antibody slowed wound healing. Furthermore, injection of EGFP-labeled hematopoietic cell-derived stem cells generated from M-CSF treated splenocytes resulted in EGFP-labeled cells being enriched in the skin wound site and further differentiated into functional organ-specific cells. Together, these data demonstrated that M-CSF makes a significant contribution to the healing process by inducing hematopoietic cell dedifferentiation into stem cells.

Hemorrhagic shock shifts the serum cytokine profile from pro- to anti-inflammatory after experimental traumatic brain injury in mice

Secondary insults, such as hemorrhagic shock (HS), worsen outcome from traumatic brain injury (TBI). Both TBI and HS modulate levels of inflammatory mediators. We evaluated the addition of HS on the inflammatory response to TBI. Adult male C57BL6J mice were randomized into five groups (n=4 [naïve] or 8/group): naïve; sham; TBI (through mild-to-moderate controlled cortical impact [CCI] at 5 m/sec, 1-mm depth), HS; and CCI+HS. All non-naïve mice underwent identical monitoring and anesthesia. HS and CCI+HS underwent a 35-min period of pressure-controlled hemorrhage (target mean arterial pressure, 25-27 mm Hg) and a 90-min resuscitation with lactated Ringer's injection and autologous blood transfusion. Mice were sacrificed at 2 or 24 h after injury. Levels of 13 cytokines, six chemokines, and three growth factors were measured in serum and in five brain tissue regions. Serum levels of several proinflammatory mediators (eotaxin, interferon-inducible protein 10 [IP-10], keratinocyte chemoattractant [KC], monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 [MCP-1], macrophage inflammatory protein 1alpha [MIP-1α], interleukin [IL]-5, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor [G-CSF]) were increased after CCI alone. Serum levels of fewer proinflammatory mediators (IL-5, IL-6, regulated upon activation, normal T-cell expressed, and secreted, and G-CSF) were increased after CCI+HS. Serum level of anti-inflammatory IL-10 was significantly increased after CCI+HS versus CCI alone. Brain tissue levels of eotaxin, IP-10, KC, MCP-1, MIP-1α, IL-6, and G-CSF were increased after both CCI and CCI+HS. There were no significant differences between levels after CCI alone and CCI+HS in any mediator. Addition of HS to experimental TBI led to a shift toward an anti-inflammatory serum profile--specifically, a marked increase in IL-10 levels. The brain cytokine and chemokine profile after TBI was minimally affected by the addition of HS.

Taurine improves functional and histological outcomes and reduces inflammation in traumatic brain injury

We investigated the effect of taurine on inflammatory cytokine expression, on astrocyte activity and cerebral edema and functional outcomes, following traumatic brain injury (TBI) in rats. 72 rats were randomly divided into sham, TBI and Taurine groups. Rats subjected to moderate lateral fluid percussion injury were injected intravenously with taurine (200mg/kg) or saline immediately after injury or daily for 7days. Functional outcome was evaluated using Modified Neurological Severity Score (mNSS). Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) of the brain was measured using immunofluorescence. Concentration of 23 cytokines and chemokines in the injured cortex at 1 and 7days after TBI was assessed by Luminex xMAP technology. The results showed that taurine significantly improved functional recovery except 1day, reduced accumulation of GFAP and water content in the penumbral region at 7days after TBI. Compared with the TBI group, taurine significantly suppressed growth-related oncogene (GRO/KC) and interleukin (IL)-1β levels while elevating the levels of regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES) at 1day. And taurine markedly decreased the level of 17 cytokine: eotaxin, Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-13, IL-17, leptin, monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and only increased the level of MIP-1α in a week. The results suggest that taurine effectively mitigates the severity of brain damage in TBI by attenuating the increase of astrocyte activity and edema as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Screening of biochemical and molecular mechanisms of secondary injury and repair in the brain after experimental blast-induced traumatic brain injury in rats

Abstract Explosive blast-induced traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the signature insult in modern combat casualty care and has been linked to post-traumatic stress disorder, memory loss, and chronic traumatic encephalopathy. In this article we report on blast-induced mild TBI (mTBI) characterized by fiber-tract degeneration and axonal injury revealed by cupric silver staining in adult male rats after head-only exposure to 35 psi in a helium-driven shock tube with head restraint. We now explore pathways of secondary injury and repair using biochemical/molecular strategies. Injury produced ∼25% mortality from apnea. Shams received identical anesthesia exposure. Rats were sacrificed at 2 or 24 h, and brain was sampled in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Hippocampal samples were used to assess gene array (RatRef-12 Expression BeadChip; Illumina, Inc., San Diego, CA) and oxidative stress (OS; ascorbate, glutathione, low-molecular-weight thiols [LMWT], protein thiols, and 4-hydroxynonenal [HNE]). Cortical samples were used to assess neuroinflammation (cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors; Luminex Corporation, Austin, TX) and purines (adenosine triphosphate [ATP], adenosine diphosphate, adenosine, inosine, 2'-AMP [adenosine monophosphate], and 5'-AMP). Gene array revealed marked increases in astrocyte and neuroinflammatory markers at 24 h (glial fibrillary acidic protein, vimentin, and complement component 1) with expression patterns bioinformatically consistent with those noted in Alzheimer's disease and long-term potentiation. Ascorbate, LMWT, and protein thiols were reduced at 2 and 24 h; by 24 h, HNE was increased. At 2 h, multiple cytokines and chemokines (interleukin [IL]-1α, IL-6, IL-10, and macrophage inflammatory protein 1 alpha [MIP-1α]) were increased; by 24 h, only MIP-1α remained elevated. ATP was not depleted, and adenosine correlated with 2'-cyclic AMP (cAMP), and not 5'-cAMP. Our data reveal (1) gene-array alterations similar to disorders of memory processing and a marked astrocyte response, (2) OS, (3) neuroinflammation with a sustained chemokine response, and (4) adenosine production despite lack of energy failure-possibly resulting from metabolism of 2'-3'-cAMP. A robust biochemical/molecular response occurs after blast-induced mTBI, with the body protected from blast and the head constrained to limit motion.

Analysis of the proteomic profile of chronic pressure ulcers

Analysis of the proteomic profile of pressure ulcers over time is a critical step in the identification of biomarkers of healing or nonhealing in pressure ulcers. The wound fluid from 32 subjects with 42 pressure ulcers was evaluated over 6 weeks at 15 time points. Samples specific to both the interior and the periphery of the wound bed were collected. Antibody screening arrays, isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation with mass spectrometry and multiplexed microarrays were used to characterize wound fluid and results were correlated with clinical outcome. Twenty-one proteins were found to distinguish between healed and chronic wounds and 19 proteins were differentially expressed between the interior and periphery of wounds. Four proteins, pyruvate kinase isozymes M1/M2, profilin-1, Ig lambda-1 chain C regions, and Ig gamma-1 chain C region, were present in lower levels for periphery samples when compared to interior samples and six proteins, keratin, type II cytoskeletal 6A (KRT6A), keratin, type I cytoskeletal 14, S100 calcium binding proteins A7, alpha-1-antitrypsin precursor, hemoglobin subunit alpha, and hemoglobin subunit beta, were present in higher levels in periphery samples when compared with interior samples. S100 calcium binding protein A6, S100 calcium binding protein A7, and soluble receptor for advanced glycation end-products had higher levels in the periphery of chronic wounds vs. the interior in planar arrays. A significant temporal trend was noted for monokine induced by gamma interferon (MIG), synonomous with chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 9 (CXCL9), which increased as wounds healed and remained nearly constant for ulcers that were not approaching closure.

Treatment of diabetic mice with undenatured whey protein accelerates the wound healing process by enhancing the expression of MIP-1α, MIP-2, KC, CX3CL1 and TGF-β in wounded tissue

Background

Continuous diabetes-associated complications are a major source of immune system exhaustion and an increased incidence of infection. Diabetes can cause poor circulation in the feet, increasing the likelihood of ulcers forming when the skin is damaged and slowing the healing of the ulcers. Whey proteins (WPs) enhance immunity during childhood and have a protective effect on some immune disorders. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the effects of camel WP on the healing and closure of diabetic wounds in a streptozotocin (STZ)-induced type I diabetic mouse model.

Results

Diabetic mice exhibited delayed wound closure characterized by a significant decrease in an anti-inflammatory cytokine (namely, IL-10) and a prolonged elevation of the levels of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) in wound tissue. Moreover, aberrant expression of chemokines that regulate wound healing (MIP-1α, MIP-2, KC and CX3CL1) and growth factors (TGF-β) were observed in the wound tissue of diabetic mice compared with control nondiabetic mice. Interestingly, compared with untreated diabetic mice, supplementation with WP significantly accelerated the closure of diabetic wounds by limiting inflammatory stimuli via the restoration of normal IL-10, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 levels. Most importantly, the supplementation of diabetic mice with WP significantly modulated the expression of MIP-1α, MIP-2, KC, CX3CL1 and TGF-β in wound tissue compared with untreated diabetic mice.

Conclusion

Our data demonstrate the benefits of WP supplementation for improving the healing and closure of diabetic wounds and restoring the immune response in diabetic mice.

The cytokine temporal profile in rat cortex after controlled cortical impact

Cerebral inflammatory responses may initiate secondary cascades following traumatic brain injury (TBI). Changes in the expression of both cytokines and chemokines may activate, regulate, and recruit innate and adaptive immune cells associated with secondary degeneration, as well as alter a host of other cellular processes. In this study, we quantified the temporal expression of a large set of inflammatory mediators in rat cortical tissue after brain injury. Following a controlled cortical impact (CCI) on young adult male rats, cortical and hippocampal tissue of the injured hemisphere and matching contralateral material was harvested at early (4, 12, and 24 hours) and extended (3 and 7 days) time points post-procedure. Naïve rats that received only anesthesia were used as controls. Processed brain homogenates were assayed for chemokine and cytokine levels utilizing an electrochemiluminescence-based multiplex ELISA platform. The temporal profile of cortical tissue samples revealed a multi-phasic injury response following brain injury. CXCL1, IFN-γ, TNF-α levels significantly peaked at four hours post-injury compared to levels found in naïve or contralateral tissue. CXCL1, IFN-γ, and TNF-α levels were then observed to decrease at least 3-fold by 12 hours post-injury. IL-1β, IL-4, and IL-13 levels were also significantly elevated at four hours post-injury although their expression did not decrease more than 3-fold for up to 24 hours post-injury. Additionally, IL-1β and IL-4 levels displayed a biphasic temporal profile in response to injury, which may suggest their involvement in adaptive immune responses. Interestingly, peak levels of CCL2 and CCL20 were not observed until after four hours post-injury. CCL2 levels in injured cortical tissue were significantly higher than peak levels of any other inflammatory mediator measured, thus suggesting a possible use as a biomarker. Fully elucidating chemokine and cytokine signaling properties after brain injury may provide increased insight into a number of secondary cascade events that are initiated or regulated by inflammatory responses.

Role of cyclophilin A from brains of prion-infected mice in stimulation of cytokine release by microglia and astroglia in vitro

Prion diseases or transmissible spongiform encephalopathy diseases are typically characterized by deposition of abnormally folded partially protease-resistant host-derived prion protein (PrPres), which is associated with activated glia and increased release of cytokines. This neuroinflammatory response may play a role in transmissible spongiform encephalopathy pathogenesis. We previously reported that brain homogenates from prion-infected mice induced cytokine protein release in primary astroglial and microglial cell cultures. Here we measured cytokine release by cultured glial cells to determine what factors in infected brain contributed to activation of microglia and astroglia. In assays analyzing IL-12p40 and CCL2 (MCP-1), glial cells were not stimulated in vitro by either PrPres purified from infected mouse brains or prion protein amyloid fibrils produced in vitro. However, significant glial stimulation was induced by clarified scrapie brain homogenates lacking PrPres. This stimulation was greatly reduced both by antibody to cyclophilin A (CyPA), a known mediator of inflammation in peripheral tissues, and by cyclosporine A, a CyPA inhibitor. In biochemical studies, purified truncated CyPA fragments stimulated a pattern of cytokine release by microglia and astroglia similar to that induced by scrapie-infected brain homogenates, whereas purified full-length CyPA was a poor stimulator. This requirement for CyPA truncation was not reported in previous studies of stimulation of peripheral macrophages, endothelial cell cardiomyocytes, and vascular smooth muscle cells. Therefore, truncated CyPA detected in brain following prion infection may have an important role in the activation of brain-derived primary astroglia and microglia in prion disease and perhaps other neurodegenerative or neuroinflammatory diseases.

Systemic levels of G-CSF and interleukin-6 determine the angiogenic potential of bone marrow resident monocytes

There is considerable interest in the potential of cell-based approaches to mediate therapeutic angiogenesis for acute and chronic vascular syndromes. Using a mouse model of HLI, we showed previously that adoptive transfer of a small number of donor monocytes enhanced revascularization significantly. Herein, we provide data suggesting that the BM resident monocytes sense systemic signals that influence their future functional capacity. Specifically, following induction of distant ischemia, the angiogenic capacity of BM resident monocytes is reduced markedly. We provide evidence that G-CSF and IL-6 represent such "conditioning" signals. Systemic levels of G-CSF and IL-6 are increased significantly following induction of HLI. Accordingly, BM resident monocytes from ischemic mice exhibited increased pSTAT3 and STAT3 target gene expression. Finally, G-CSFR(-/-) and IL-6(-/-) mice were resistant to the deleterious effects of ischemic conditioning on monocyte angiogenic potential. RNA expression profiling suggested that ischemia-conditioned monocytes in the BM up-regulate the well-described M2 polarization markers Chi3l4 and Lrg1. Consistent with this observation, M2-skewed monocytes from SHIP(-/-) mice also had impaired angiogenic capacity. Collectively, these data show that G-CSF and IL-6 provide signals that determine the angiogenic potential of BM resident monocytes.

New technologies in affinity assays to explore biological communication

The language that cells use to communicate consists of the small molecules, peptides, and proteins that are released into the extracellular environment. To decipher this language, analytical assays are needed that have high selectivity, high sensitivity, and fast temporal resolution. Affinity assays are a group of analytical methodologies that are adept at studying this communication. In this overview, we highlight several examples from the literature on various types of affinity assays used in different platforms to monitor biological communication of peptides and proteins.