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Filgueiras A, Stults-Kolehmainen M, Melo G, Keegan R. Cognition in soccer and futsal: evidence of validity of a 4-instrument protocol to assess executive functioning among women athletes. BMC Psychol 2023; 11:436. [PMID: 38066534 PMCID: PMC10709850 DOI: 10.1186/s40359-023-01464-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Evidence suggests that success in sports, especially soccer and futsal are linked to higher levels of executive functioning. Still, the literature does not present a homogeneous set of instruments to measure executive functions, which leads to large variability in results. In this paper, we assembled four already recognised measures to propose a valid 4-instrument protocol to assess executive functions among soccer and futsal athletes. We conducted two studies to validate the proposed protocol. We addressed known-groups validity and latent structure in Study 1 for data collected on 105 female soccer and futsal athletes from elite and lower-division clubs. Findings pointed to partial validity of the protocol - with working memory and inhibition showing the best results. For Study 2, we used performance data from 51 elite female soccer players collected throughout a season of the first division league to assess predictive validity. Our protocol was able to partially replicate previous findings and added new insights on how working memory, processing speed and higher-level executive functions might play different roles for goalscoring and assist-making skills. Specifically, study 1 did not find a significant difference between elite and lower-division athletes in higher-order executive functions as in previous studies, but it did find on visual working memory and inhibitory control which weights towards higher demands of core executive functions. On the other hand, study 2 yielded significant results for processing speed and visual working memory to predict assists among elite soccer players, but not inhibitory control as previous findings suggested. Regardless, the proposed 4-instrument protocol showed adequate criterion and structural validity in both studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Filgueiras
- Psychological Sciences, University of Gloucestershire, School of Natural, Social and Sport Sciences, QU214, Francis Close Hall Campus, Swindon Road, Gloucestershire, Cheltenham, GL53 7JX, UK.
| | - Matthew Stults-Kolehmainen
- Teacher's College, University of Columbia, New York, USA
- Department of Bariatric Surgery, Yale New-Haven Hospital, New-Haven, USA
| | - Gislane Melo
- Department of Physical Education, Universidade Catolica de Brasilia, Brasilia, Brazil
| | - Richard Keegan
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
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2
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Filben TM, Tomblin BT, Pritchard NS, Bullock GS, Hemmen JM, Neri KE, Krug V, Miles CM, Stitzel JD, Urban JE. Assessing the association between on-field heading technique and head impact kinematics in a cohort of female youth soccer players. SCI MED FOOTBALL 2023:1-10. [PMID: 37753837 DOI: 10.1080/24733938.2023.2264272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
There is concern that exposure to soccer headers may be associated with neurological sequelae. Training proper heading technique represents a coachable intervention that may reduce head acceleration exposure. The objective was to assess relationships between heading technique and head kinematics in female youth soccer players. Fourteen players (mean age = 14.4 years) wore instrumented mouthpieces during practices and games. Headers were reviewed by three raters to assign a technique score. Mixed models and LASSO regression evaluated associations of technique with peak linear acceleration (PLA), rotational acceleration (PRA), rotational velocity (PRV), and head impact power ratio (HIP Ratio) while adjusting for session type and ball delivery. Two hundred eighty-nine headers (n = 212 standing, n = 77 jumping) were analyzed. Technique score (p = 0.043) and the technique score - session type interaction (p = 0.004) were associated with PRA of standing headers, whereby each 10-unit increase in technique score was associated with an 8.6% decrease in PRA during games but a 5.1% increase in PRA during practices. Technique was not significantly associated with any other kinematic metrics; however, peak kinematics tended to decrease as technique score increased. LASSO regression identified back extension and shoulder/hip alignment as important predictors of peak kinematics. Additional research on heading technique and head acceleration is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanner M Filben
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Virginia Tech - Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Brian T Tomblin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Virginia Tech - Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - N Stewart Pritchard
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Virginia Tech - Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Garrett S Bullock
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery & Rehabilitation, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Jordan M Hemmen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Kristina E Neri
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Victoria Krug
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Christopher M Miles
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Joel D Stitzel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Virginia Tech - Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Jillian E Urban
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Virginia Tech - Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
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Peek K, Duffield R, Cairns R, Jones M, Meyer T, McCall A, Oxenham V. Where are We Headed? Evidence to Inform Future Football Heading Guidelines. Sports Med 2023; 53:1335-1358. [PMID: 37285067 PMCID: PMC10289964 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01852-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Given the scientific and public concern regarding the short-, medium- and long-term consequences of heading on brain health, being proactive about developing and implementing guidelines that help reduce the burden (volume, impact magnitude and injury risk) of heading in young and beginner players appears justified. This narrative review explores the evidence underpinning strategies that could be incorporated into future heading guidelines to reduce heading burden in players across all levels of football. A four-step search strategy was utilised to identify all data-based papers related to heading in football. Eligibility criteria for inclusion were: (1) original data, (2) study population included football players, (3) outcome measures included one or more of the following: number of headers, measurement of head acceleration during heading, or head/brain injury incidence, and (4) published in English or English translation available. In total, 58 papers were included that outlined strategies based on (1) game or team development, (2) player skill development and (3) equipment. In particular, greater emphasis existed for small-sided games (particularly in young players) where fewer headers are observed when compared with the conventional 11 versus 11 game, as well as reducing headers from goal kicks and corners. Evidence also existed for developing a heading coaching framework that focusses on technical proficiency as well as neuromuscular neck exercises integrated into general injury reduction exercise programs, enforcement of rules related to deliberate head contact and using lower-pressure match and training balls. To mitigate potential risks of heading on brain health, a number of pragmatic strategies have been examined in scientific studies and may be considered as part of future heading guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry Peek
- Discipline of Physiotherapy, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Rob Duffield
- School of Sport, Exercsie & Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW Australia
- Football Australia, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Ross Cairns
- Newcastle Sports Medicine, Warners Bay, NSW Australia
- School of Medicine and Public Health, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Mark Jones
- Football Australia, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Tim Meyer
- Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Alan McCall
- School of Sport, Exercsie & Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW Australia
- Football Australia, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Vincent Oxenham
- School of Psychological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW Australia
- Department of Neuropsychology, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, NSW Australia
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Roby PR, Metzger KB, McDonald CC, Corwin DJ, Huber CM, Patton DA, Margulies SS, Grady MF, Master CL, Arbogast KB. Pre- and post-season visio-vestibular function in healthy adolescent athletes. PHYSICIAN SPORTSMED 2022; 50:522-530. [PMID: 34521303 PMCID: PMC8934744 DOI: 10.1080/00913847.2021.1980744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate pre - to post-season differences in individual subtests of the Visio-Vestibular Examination (VVE) in healthy middle and high school athletes. METHODS This prospective cohort study recruited participants from a private suburban United States secondary school. Participants completed a demographic questionnaire prior to the start of their season. A proxy for head impact exposure was estimated by incorporating previously published head impact frequencies by team and sport. The VVE was completed pre - and post-season and consisted of 9 subtests: smooth pursuit, horizontal/vertical saccades and gaze stability, binocular convergence, left/right monocular accommodation, and complex tandem gait. Generalized estimating equations were employed to assess the relative risk of an abnormal VVE outcome based on testing session (pre - vs. post-season). RESULTS Participants included middle and high school athletes (n = 115; female = 59 (51.3%); median age at first assessment = 14.9 years, [IQR = 13.6, 16.0]) during 2017/18 - 2019/20 school years. During pre-season testing, accommodation (10.0%) and complex tandem gait (9.2%) had the largest proportion of abnormal outcomes, while smooth pursuits (10.6%) and convergence (9.5%) had the largest proportion of abnormal outcomes post-season. When assessing the effect of testing session on the relative risk of any abnormal VVE subtest, there were no significant findings (P ≥ 0.25). Additionally, there were no significant effects of testing session when adjusting for estimated head impact exposure for any VVE subtest (P ≥ 0.25). CONCLUSIONS Visio-vestibular function as measured by the VVE does not change from pre - to post-season in otherwise healthy adolescent athletes. Our findings suggest that the VVE may be stable and robust to typical neurodevelopment occurring in this dynamic age group and help inform post-injury interpretation of visio-vestibular impairments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia R Roby
- Center for Injury Research and Prevention, the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Kristina B Metzger
- Center for Injury Research and Prevention, the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Catherine C McDonald
- Center for Injury Research and Prevention, the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- School of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Daniel J Corwin
- Center for Injury Research and Prevention, the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Division of Emergency Medicine, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Colin M Huber
- Center for Injury Research and Prevention, the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Declan A Patton
- Center for Injury Research and Prevention, the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Susan S Margulies
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Matthew F Grady
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Sports Medicine Performance Center, the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Christina L Master
- Center for Injury Research and Prevention, the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Sports Medicine Performance Center, the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Kristy B Arbogast
- Center for Injury Research and Prevention, the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Division of Emergency Medicine, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Gallagher VT, Murthy P, Stocks J, Vesci B, Mjaanes J, Chen Y, Breiter HC, LaBella C, Herrold AA, Reilly JL. Eye Movements Detect Differential Change after Participation in Male Collegiate Collision versus Non-Collision Sports. Neurotrauma Rep 2021; 2:440-452. [PMID: 34901940 PMCID: PMC8655805 DOI: 10.1089/neur.2021.0030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although neuroimaging studies of collision (COLL) sport athletes demonstrate alterations in brain structure and function from pre- to post-season, reliable tools to detect behavioral/cognitive change relevant to functional networks associated with participation in collision sports are lacking. This study evaluated the use of eye-movement testing to detect change in cognitive and sensorimotor processing among male club collegiate athletes after one season of participation in collision sports of variable exposure. We predicted that COLL (High Dose [hockey], n = 8; Low Dose [rugby], n = 9) would demonstrate longer reaction times (antisaccade and memory-guided saccade [MGS] latencies), increased inhibitory errors (antisaccade error rate), and poorer spatial working memory (MGS spatial accuracy) at post-season, relative to pre-season, whereas non-collision collegiate athletes (NON-COLL; n = 17) would remain stable. We also predicted that whereas eye-movement performance would detect pre- to post-season change, ImPACT (Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Test) performance would remain stable. Our data showed that NON-COLL had shorter (improved performance) post- versus pre-season antisaccade and MGS latencies, whereas COLL groups showed stable, longer, or attenuated reduction in latency (ps ≤ 0.001). Groups did not differ in antisaccade error rate. On the MGS task, NON-COLL demonstrated improved spatial accuracy over time, whereas COLL groups showed reduced spatial accuracy (p < 0.05, uncorrected). No differential change was observed on ImPACT. This study provides preliminary evidence for eye-movement testing as a sensitive marker of subtle changes in attentional control and working memory resulting from participation in sports with varying levels of subconcussive exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Prianka Murthy
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Jane Stocks
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Brian Vesci
- Department of Sports Medicine, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA
| | - Jeffrey Mjaanes
- Department of Sports Medicine, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA
| | - Yufen Chen
- Center for Translational Imaging, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA
| | - Hans C Breiter
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Cynthia LaBella
- Division of Orthopedics and Sports Medicine, Ann & Robert H Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Amy A Herrold
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - James L Reilly
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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Bruce SL, Wilkerson GB. Whole-Body Reactive Agility Metrics to Identify Football Players With a Core and Lower Extremity Injury Risk. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:733567. [PMID: 34746776 PMCID: PMC8564038 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.733567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical prediction models are useful in addressing several orthopedic conditions with various cohorts. American football provides a good population for attempting to predict injuries due to their relatively high injury rate. Physical performance can be assessed a variety of ways using an assortment of different tests to assess a diverse set of metrics, which may include reaction time, speed, acceleration, and deceleration. Asymmetry, the difference between right and left performance has been identified as a possible risk factor for injury. The purpose of this study was to determine the whole-body reactive agility metrics that would identify Division I football players who were at elevated risk for core, and lower extremity injuries (CLEI). This cohort study utilized 177 Division I football players with a total of 57 CLEI suffered who were baseline tested prior to the season. Single-task and dual-task whole-body reactive agility movements in lateral and diagonal direction reacting to virtual reality targets were analyzed separately. Receiver operator characteristic (ROC) analyses narrowed the 34 original predictor variables to five variables. Logistic regression analysis determined the three strongest predictors of CLEI for this cohort to be: lateral agility acceleration asymmetry, lateral flanker deceleration asymmetry, and diagonal agility reaction time average. Univariable analysis found odds ratios to range from 1.98 to 2.75 for these predictors of CLEI. ROC analysis had an area under the curve of 0.702 for any combination of two or more risk factors produced an odds ratio of 5.5 for risk of CLEI. These results suggest an asymmetry of 8-15% on two of the identified metrics or a slowed reaction time of ≥0.787 s places someone at increased risk of injury. Sixty-three percent (36/57) of the players who sustained an injury had ≥2 positive predictors In spite of the recognized limitation, these finding support the belief that whole-body reactive agility performance can identify Division I football players who are at elevated risk for CLEI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott L Bruce
- Masters of Athletic Training Program, Arkansas State University, Jonesboro, AR, United States
| | - Gary B Wilkerson
- Department of Health and Human Performance, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, Chattanooga, TN, United States
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Zhou J. Differences on Prosaccade Task in Skilled and Less Skilled Female Adolescent Soccer Players. Front Psychol 2021; 12:711420. [PMID: 34721156 PMCID: PMC8551357 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.711420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the relationship between cognitive processes and saccadic eye movements has been outlined, the relationship between specific cognitive processes underlying saccadic eye movements and skill level of soccer players remains unclear. Present study used the prosaccade task as a tool to investigate the difference in saccadic eye movements in skilled and less skilled Chinese female adolescent soccer players. Fifty-six healthy female adolescent soccer players (range: 14–18years, mean age: 16.5years) from Fujian Youth Football Training Base (Fujian Province, China) took part in the experiment. In the prosaccade task, participants were instructed to fixate at the cross at the center of the screen as long as the target appeared peripherally. They were told to saccade to the target as quickly and accurately as possible once it appeared. The results indicated that skilled soccer players exhibited shorter saccade latency (p=0.031), decreased variability of saccade latency (p=0.013), and higher spatial accuracy of saccade (p=0.032) than their less skilled counterparts. The shorter saccade latency and decreased variability of saccade latency may imply that the attentional system of skilled soccer player is superior which leads to smaller attention fluctuation and less attentional lapse. Additionally, higher spatial accuracy of saccade may imply potential structural differences in brain underlying saccadic eye movement between skilled and less skilled soccer players. More importantly, the results of the present study demonstrated that soccer players’ cognitive capacities vary as a function of their skill levels. The limitations of the present study and future directions of research were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyi Zhou
- School of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China.,Provincial University Key Laboratory of Sport and Health Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Kinesiological Evaluation General Administration of Sport of China, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
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