Alterations of Glycosphingolipids in Embryonic Stem Cell Differentiation and Development of Glycan-Targeting Cancer Immunotherapy

Single-Cell RNA Sequencing Analysis Reveals Metabolic Changes in Epithelial Glycosphingolipids and Establishes a Prognostic Risk Model for Pancreatic Cancer

OBJECTIVE

Metabolic reprogramming serves as a distinctive feature of cancer, impacting proliferation and metastasis, with aberrant glycosphingolipid expression playing a crucial role in malignancy. Nevertheless, limited research has investigated the connection between glycosphingolipid metabolism and pancreatic cancer.

METHODS

This study utilized a single-cell sequencing dataset to analyze the cell composition in pancreatic cancer tissues and quantified single-cell metabolism using a newly developed computational pipeline called scMetabolism. A gene signature developed from the differential expressed genes (DEGs), related to epithelial cell glycosphingolipid metabolism, was established to forecast patient survival, immune response, mutation status, and reaction to chemotherapy with pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAAD).

RESULTS

The single-cell sequencing analysis revealed a significant increase in epithelial cell proportions in PAAD, with high glycosphingolipid metabolism occurring in the cancerous tissue. A six-gene signature prognostic model based on abnormal epithelial glycosphingolipid metabolism was created and confirmed using publicly available databases. Patients with PAAD were divided into high- and low-risk categories according to the median risk score, with those in the high-risk group demonstrating a more unfavorable survival outcome in all three cohorts, with higher rates of gene mutations (e.g., KRAS, CDKN2A), increased levels of immunosuppressive cells (macrophages, Th2 cells, regulatory T cells), and heightened sensitivity to Acetalax and Selumetinlb.

CONCLUSIONS

Abnormal metabolism of glycosphingolipids in epithelial cells may promote the development of PAAD. A model utilizing a gene signature associated with epithelial glycosphingolipids metabolism has been established, serving as a valuable indicator for the prognostic stratification of patients with PAAD.

Age-related and species-specific methylation changes in the protein-coding marmoset sperm epigenome

The sperm epigenome is thought to affect the developmental programming of the resulting embryo, influencing health and disease in later life. Age-related methylation changes in the sperm of old fathers may mediate the increased risks for reproductive and offspring medical problems. The impact of paternal age on sperm methylation has been extensively studied in humans and, to a lesser extent, in rodents and cattle. Here, we performed a comparative analysis of paternal age effects on protein-coding genes in the human and marmoset sperm methylomes. The marmoset has gained growing importance as a non-human primate model of aging and age-related diseases. Using reduced representation bisulfite sequencing, we identified age-related differentially methylated transcription start site (ageTSS) regions in 204 marmoset and 27 human genes. The direction of methylation changes was the opposite, increasing with age in marmosets and decreasing in humans. None of the identified ageTSS was differentially methylated in both species. Although the average methylation levels of all TSS regions were highly correlated between marmosets and humans, with the majority of TSS being hypomethylated in sperm, more than 300 protein-coding genes were endowed with species-specifically (hypo)methylated TSS. Several genes of the glycosphingolipid (GSL) biosynthesis pathway, which plays a role in embryonic stem cell differentiation and regulation of development, were hypomethylated (<5%) in human and fully methylated (>95%) in marmoset sperm. The expression levels and patterns of defined sets of GSL genes differed considerably between human and marmoset pre-implantation embryo stages and blastocyst tissues, respectively.

Priming of macrophage by glycosphingolipids from extracellular vesicles facilitates immune tolerance for embryo-maternal crosstalk

Glycosphingolipids (GSLs) display diverse functions during embryonic development. Here, we examined the GSL profiles of extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) and investigated their functions in priming macrophages to enhance immune tolerance of embryo implantation. When peripheral blood mononuclear cells were incubated with ESC-secreted EVs, globo-series GSLs (GHCer, SSEA3Cer, and SSEA4Cer) were transferred via EVs into monocytes/macrophages. Incubation of monocytes during their differentiation into macrophages with either EVs or synthetic globo-series GSLs induced macrophages to exhibit phenotypic features that imitate immune receptivity, i.e., macrophage polarization, augmented phagocytic activity, suppression of T cell proliferation, and the increased trophoblast invasion. It was also demonstrated that decidual macrophages in first-trimester tissues expressed globo-series GSLs. These findings highlight the role of globo-series GSLs via transfer from EVs in priming macrophages to display decidual macrophage phenotypes, which may facilitate healthy pregnancy.

Conformational alteration in glycan induces phospholipase Cβ1 activation and angiogenesis

BACKGROUND

In endothelial cells, phospholipase C (PLC) β1-activated Ca²⁺ is a crucial second messenger for the signaling pathways governing angiogenesis. PLCβ1 is inactivated by complexing with an intracellular protein called translin-associated factor X (TRAX). This study demonstrates specific interactions between Globo H ceramide (GHCer) and TRAX, which highlight a new angiogenic control through PLCβ1 activation.

METHODS

Globo-series glycosphingolipids (GSLs), including GHCer and stage-specific embryonic antigen-3 ceramide (SSEA3Cer), were analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Biacore for their binding with TRAX. Angiogenic activities of GSLs in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were evaluated. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation was used to study conformations of GSLs and their molecular interactions with TRAX. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) analysis of HUVECs by confocal microscopy was used to validate the release of PLCβ1 from TRAX. Furthermore, the in vivo angiogenic activity of extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing GHCer was confirmed using subcutaneous Matrigel plug assay in mice.

RESULTS

The results of ELISA and Biacore analysis showed a stable complex between recombinant TRAX and synthetic GHCer with KD of 40.9 nM. In contrast, SSEA3Cer lacking a fucose residue of GHCer at the terminal showed ~ 1000-fold decrease in the binding affinity. These results were consistent with their angiogenic activities in HUVECs. The MD simulation indicated that TRAX interacted with the glycan moiety of GHCer at amino acid Q223, Q219, L142, S141, and E216. At equilibrium the stable complex maintained 4.6 ± 1.3 H-bonds. TRAX containing double mutations with Q223A and Q219A lost its ability to interact with GHCer in both MD simulation and Biacore assays. Removal of the terminal fucose from GHCer to become SSEA3Cer resulted in decreased H-bonding to 1.2 ± 1.0 by the MD simulation. Such specific H-bonding was due to the conformational alteration in the whole glycan which was affected by the presence or absence of the fucose moiety. In addition, ELISA, Biacore, and in-cell FRET assays confirmed the competition between GHCer and PLCβ1 for binding to TRAX. Furthermore, the Matrigel plug assay showed robust vessel formation in the plug containing tumor-secreted EVs or synthetic GHCer, but not in the plug with SSEA3Cer. The FRET analysis also indicated the disruption of colocalization of TRAX and PLCβ1 in cells by GHCer derived from EVs.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the fucose residue in GHCer dictated the glycan conformation for its complexing with TRAX to release TRAX-sequestered PLCβ1, leading to Ca²⁺ mobilization in endothelial cells and enhancing angiogenesis in tumor microenvironments.

GLORIA: phase III, open-label study of adagloxad simolenin/OBI-821 in patients with high-risk triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) has the highest rate of distant metastasis and poorest overall survival among breast cancer subtypes. In a phase II study, adagloxad simolenin (AdaSim), a synthetic Globo H conjugate vaccine administered with adjuvant OBI-821, was shown to induce IgM and IgG anti-Globo H humoral responses in patients with metastatic breast cancer overexpressing the glycosphingolipid Globo H. GLORIA is an ongoing phase III, randomized, open-label clinical trial to evaluate the safety and efficacy of AdaSim and the quality of life (QoL) of patients receiving AdaSim plus standard of care (SOC) versus SOC alone in high-risk, early-stage TNBC. The primary end point is invasive progression-free survival; secondary end points include overall survival, QoL, breast cancer-free interval, distant disease-free survival, safety, and tolerability.

Emerging drug targets for triple-negative breast cancer: A guided tour of the preclinical landscape

INTRODUCTION

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most fatal molecular subtype of breast cancer because of its aggressiveness and resistance to chemotherapy. FDA-approved therapies for TNBC are limited to poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and trophoblast cell surface antigen 2-targeted antibody-drug conjugate. Therefore, developing a novel effective targeted therapy for TNBC is an urgent unmet need.

AREAS COVERED

In this narrative review, we discuss emerging targets for TNBC treatment discovered in early translational studies. We focus on cancer cell membrane molecules, hyperactive intracellular signaling pathways, and the tumor microenvironment (TME) based on their druggability, therapeutic potency, specificity to TNBC, and application in immunotherapy.

EXPERT OPINION

The significant challenges in the identification and validation of TNBC-associated targets are 1) application of appropriate genetic, molecular, and immunological approaches for modulating the target, 2) establishment of a proper mouse model that accurately represents the human immune TME, 3) TNBC molecular heterogeneity, and 4) failure translation of preclinical findings to clinical practice. To overcome those difficulties, future research needs to apply novel technology, such as single-cell RNA sequencing, thermostable group II intron reverse transcriptase sequencing, and humanized mouse models. Further, combination treatment targeting multiple pathways in both the TNBC tumor and its TME is essential for effective disease control.

Targeting Tumor Glycans for Cancer Therapy: Successes, Limitations, and Perspectives

Simple Summary

Aberrant glycosylation is a common feature of many cancers, and it plays crucial roles in tumor development and biology. Cancer progression can be regulated by several physiopathological processes controlled by glycosylation, such as cell–cell adhesion, cell–matrix interaction, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, tumor proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. Different mechanisms of aberrant glycosylation lead to the formation of tumor-associated carbohydrate antigens (TACAs), which are suitable for selective cancer targeting, as well as novel antitumor immunotherapy approaches. This review summarizes the strategies developed in cancer immunotherapy targeting TACAs, analyzing molecular and cellular mechanisms and state-of-the-art methods in clinical oncology.

Abstract

Aberrant glycosylation is a hallmark of cancer and can lead to changes that influence tumor behavior. Glycans can serve as a source of novel clinical biomarker developments, providing a set of specific targets for therapeutic intervention. Different mechanisms of aberrant glycosylation lead to the formation of tumor-associated carbohydrate antigens (TACAs) suitable for selective cancer-targeting therapy. The best characterized TACAs are truncated O-glycans (Tn, TF, and sialyl-Tn antigens), gangliosides (GD2, GD3, GM2, GM3, fucosyl-GM1), globo-serie glycans (Globo-H, SSEA-3, SSEA-4), Lewis antigens, and polysialic acid. In this review, we analyze strategies for cancer immunotherapy targeting TACAs, including different antibody developments, the production of vaccines, and the generation of CAR-T cells. Some approaches have been approved for clinical use, such as anti-GD2 antibodies. Moreover, in terms of the antitumor mechanisms against different TACAs, we show results of selected clinical trials, considering the horizons that have opened up as a result of recent developments in technologies used for cancer control.

The role of Globo H and SSEA-4 in the development and progression of cancer, and their potential as therapeutic targets

Glycans, chains of sugar molecules found conjugated to cell proteins and lipids, contribute to their growth, movement and differentiation. Aberrant glycosylation is a hallmark of several medical conditions including tumorigenesis. Glycosphingolipids (GSLs), consisting of glycans conjugated to a lipid (ceramide) core, are found in the lipid bilayer of eukaryotic cell membranes. GSLs, play an active role in cell processes. Several GSLs are expressed by human embryonic stem cells and have been found to be overexpressed in several types of cancer. In this review, we discuss the data, hypotheses and perspectives related to the GSLs Globo H and SSEA-4.

Globo H-KLH vaccine adagloxad simolenin (OBI-822)/OBI-821 in patients with metastatic breast cancer: phase II randomized, placebo-controlled study

PURPOSE

This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, phase II trial assessed the efficacy and safety of adagloxad simolenin (OBI-822; a Globo H epitope covalently linked to keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH)) with adjuvant OBI-821 in metastatic breast cancer (MBC).

METHODS

At 40 sites in Taiwan, USA, Korea, India, and Hong Kong, patients with MBC of any molecular subtype and ≤2 prior progressive disease events with stable/responding disease after the last anticancer regimen were randomized (2:1) to adagloxad simolenin (AS/OBI-821) or placebo, subcutaneously for nine doses with low-dose cyclophosphamide. The primary endpoint was progression-free survival (PFS). Secondary endpoints included overall survival, correlation of clinical outcome with humoral immune response and Globo H expression, and safety.

RESULTS

Of 349 patients randomized, 348 received study drug. Patients with the following breast cancer subtypes were included: hormone receptor-positive (HR+)/human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative (HER2-) (70.4%), triple negative (12.9%), and HER2+ (16.7%), similarly distributed between treatment arms. Median PFS was 7.6 months (95% CI: 6.5-10.9) with AS/OBI-821 (n=224) and 9.2 months (95% CI: 7.3-11.3) with placebo (n=124) (HR=0.96; 95% CI: 0.74-1.25; p=0.77), with no difference by breast cancer subtype. AS/OBI-821 recipients with anti-Globo H IgG titer ≥1:160 had significantly longer median PFS (11.1 months (95% CI: 9.3-17.6)) versus those with titers <1:160 (5.5 months (95% CI: 3.7-5.6); HR=0.52; p<0.0001) and placebo recipients (HR=0.71; p=0.03). Anti-KLH immune responses were similar at week 40 between AS/OBI-821 recipients with anti-Globo IgG titer ≥1:160 and those with anti-Globo IgG titer <1:160. The most common adverse events with AS/OBI-821 were grade 1 or 2 injection site reactions (56.7%; placebo, 8.9%) and fever (20.1%; placebo, 6.5%).

CONCLUSION

AS/OBI-821 did not improve PFS in patients with previously treated MBC. However, humoral immune response to Globo H correlated with improved PFS in AS/OBI-821 recipients, leading the way to further marker-driven studies. Treatment was well tolerated.NCT01516307.

ANALYSIS OF CARBOHYDRATES AND GLYCOCONJUGATES BY MATRIX-ASSISTED LASER DESORPTION/IONIZATION MASS SPECTROMETRY: AN UPDATE FOR 2015-2016

This review is the ninth update of the original article published in 1999 on the application of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2016. Also included are papers that describe methods appropriate to analysis by MALDI, such as sample preparation techniques, even though the ionization method is not MALDI. Topics covered in the first part of the review include general aspects such as theory of the MALDI process, matrices, derivatization, MALDI imaging, fragmentation and arrays. The second part of the review is devoted to applications to various structural types such as oligo- and poly-saccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, glycosides and biopharmaceuticals. Much of this material is presented in tabular form. The third part of the review covers medical and industrial applications of the technique, studies of enzyme reactions and applications to chemical synthesis. The reported work shows increasing use of combined new techniques such as ion mobility and the enormous impact that MALDI imaging is having. MALDI, although invented over 30 years ago is still an ideal technique for carbohydrate analysis and advancements in the technique and range of applications show no sign of deminishing. © 2020 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Dissecting the conformation of glycans and their interactions with proteins

The use of in silico strategies to develop the structural basis for a rational optimization of glycan-protein interactions remains a great challenge. This problem derives, in part, from the lack of technologies to quantitatively and qualitatively assess the complex assembling between a glycan and the targeted protein molecule. Since there is an unmet need for developing new sugar-targeted therapeutics, many investigators are searching for technology platforms to elucidate various types of molecular interactions within glycan-protein complexes and aid in the development of glycan-targeted therapies. Here we discuss three important technology platforms commonly used in the assessment of the complex assembly of glycosylated biomolecules, such as glycoproteins or glycosphingolipids: Biacore analysis, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulations. We will also discuss the structural investigation of glycosylated biomolecules, including conformational changes of glycans and their impact on molecular interactions within the glycan-protein complex. For glycoproteins, secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC), which is associated with various lung disorders, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and lung cancer, will be taken as an example showing that the core fucosylation of N-glycan in SPARC regulates protein-binding affinity with extracellular matrix collagen. For glycosphingolipids (GSLs), Globo H ceramide, an important tumor-associated GSL which is being actively investigated as a target for new cancer immunotherapies, will be used to demonstrate how glycan structure plays a significant role in enhancing angiogenesis in tumor microenvironments.

Targeting glycosphingolipids for cancer immunotherapy

Aberrant expression of glycosphingolipids (GSLs) is a unique feature of cancer and stromal cells in tumor microenvironments. Although the impact of GSLs on tumor progression remains largely unclear, anticancer immunotherapies directed against GSLs are attracting growing attention. Here, we focus on GD2, a disialoganglioside expressed in tumors of neuroectodermal origin, and Globo H ceramide (GHCer), the most prevalent cancer-associated GSL overexpressed in a variety of epithelial cancers. We first summarize recent advances on our understanding of GD2 and GHCer biology and then discuss the clinical development of the first immunotherapeutic agent targeting a glycolipid, the GD2-specific antibody dinutuximab, its approved indications, and new strategies to improve its efficacy for neuroblastoma. Next, we review ongoing clinical trials on Globo H-targeted immunotherapeutics. We end with highlighting how these studies provide sound scientific rationales for targeting GSLs in cancer and may facilitate a rational design of new GSL-targeted anticancer therapeutics.

A set of cancer stem cell homing peptides associating with the glycan moieties of glycosphingolipids

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are currently believed to be involved in tumor metastasis and relapse. And treatments against CSCs are well concerned issues. Peptides targeting to mouse and human CSCs were screened from an M13 phage display library. The first subset of cancer stem cell homing peptides (CSC HPs), CSC HP-1 to -12, were screened with mouse EMT6 breast cancer stem cells. Among them, CSC HP-1, CSC HP-3, CSC HP-8, CSC HP-9, and CSC HP-10 can bind to mouse CT26 colon CSCs; CSC HP-1, CSC HP-2, CSC HP-3, and CSC HP-8 can bind to mouse Hepa1-6 liver CSCs; as well as CSC HP-1, CSC HP-2, CSC HP-3, CSC HP-8, CSC HP-9, CSC HP-10, and CSC HP-11 can bind to human PANC-1 pancreatic CSCs. The second subset of cancer stem cell homing peptides, CSC HP-hP1 to -hP3, were screened with human PANC-1 pancreatic CSCs. Both CSC HP-hP1 and CSC HP-hP2 were demonstrated able to bind mouse EMT6, CT26 and Hepa1-6 CSCs as well as human colorectal HT29 and lung H1650 CSCs. CSC HP-1 and CSC HP-hP1 could strongly associate with the Globo 4 and Lewis Y glycan epitopes coupled on a microarray chip or Globo 4 and Globo H conjugated on bovine serum albumin. CSC HP-10, CSC HP-11 and CSC HP-hP2 could associate with the disialylated saccharide Neu5Ac-α-2,6-Gal-β-1,3-(Neu5Ac-α-2,6)-GalNAc coupled on a microarray chip. These results indicate that the CSC HPs may target to the known stem cell glycan markers GbH and Lewis Y as well as the disialylated saccharide.

Gangliosides and Tumors

Tumor-associated gangliosides play important roles in regulation of signal transduction induced by growth-factor receptors including EGFR, FGFR, HGF and PDGFR in a specific microdomain called glycosynapse in the cancer cell membranes, and in interaction with glycan recognition molecules involved in cell adhesion and immune regulation including selectins and siglecs. As the genes involved in the synthesis and degradation of tumor-associated gangliosides were identified, biological functions became clearer from the experimental results employing forced overexpression and/or knockdown/knockout of the genes. Studies on the regulatory mechanisms for their expression also achieved great advancements. Epigenetic silencing of glycan-related genes is a dominant mechanism in glycan alteration at early stages of carcinogenesis. Development of hypoxia resistance involving activation of a transcription factor HIF, and acquisition of cancer stem cell-like characteristics through epithelial-mesenchymal transition are important mechanisms for glycan modulations in the later stages of cancer progression. In the initial stages of studies, the gangliosides which specifically appear in cancers attracted attention under the name of tumor-associated gangliosides. However, it became apparent that not only the cancer-associated gangliosides but also the normal gangliosides present in nonmalignant cells and tissues perform important biological functions, and some of them tend to disappear in cancer cells resulting in the loss of the physiological functions, and this sometimes facilitates progression of cancers.

Structural Analysis of Unsaturated Glycosphingolipids Using Shotgun Ozone-Induced Dissociation Mass Spectrometry

Glycosphingolipids are essential biomolecules widely distributed across biological kingdoms yet remain relatively underexplored owing to both compositional and structural complexity. While the glycan head group has been the subject of most studies, there is paucity of reports on the lipid moiety, particularly the location of unsaturation. In this paper, ozone-induced dissociation mass spectrometry (OzID-MS) implemented in a traveling wave-based quadrupole time-of-flight (Q-ToF) mass spectrometer was applied to study unsaturated glycosphingolipids using shotgun approach. Resulting high resolution mass spectra facilitated the unambiguous identification of diagnostic OzID product ions. Using [M+Na]+ adducts of authentic standards, we observed that the long chain base and fatty acyl unsaturation had distinct reactivity with ozone. The reactivity of unsaturation in the fatty acyl chain was about 8-fold higher than that in the long chain base, which enables their straightforward differentiation. Influence of the head group, fatty acyl hydroxylation, and length of fatty acyl chain on the oxidative cleavage of double bonds was also observed. Application of this technique to bovine brain galactocerebrosides revealed co-isolated isobaric and regioisomeric species, which otherwise would be incompletely identified using contemporary collision-induced dissociation (CID) alone. These results highlight the potential of OzID-MS in glycosphingolipids research, which not only provides complementary structural information to existing CID technique but also facilitates de novo structural determination of these complex biomolecules. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

High expression FUT1 and B3GALT5 is an independent predictor of postoperative recurrence and survival in hepatocellular carcinoma

Cancer may arise from dedifferentiation of mature cells or maturation-arrested stem cells. Previously we reported that definitive endoderm from which liver was derived, expressed Globo H, SSEA-3 and SSEA-4. In this study, we examined the expression of their biosynthetic enzymes, FUT1, FUT2, B3GALT5 and ST3GAL2, in 135 hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) tissues by qRT-PCR. High expression of either FUT1 or B3GALT5 was significantly associated with advanced stages and poor outcome. Kaplan Meier survival analysis showed significantly shorter relapse-free survival (RFS) for those with high expression of either FUT1 or B3GALT5 (P = 0.024 and 0.001, respectively) and shorter overall survival (OS) for those with high expression of B3GALT5 (P = 0.017). Combination of FUT1 and B3GALT5 revealed that high expression of both genes had poorer RFS and OS than the others (P < 0.001). Moreover, multivariable Cox regression analysis identified the combination of B3GALT5 and FUT1 as an independent predictor for RFS (HR: 2.370, 95% CI: 1.505-3.731, P < 0.001) and OS (HR: 2.153, 95% CI: 1.188-3.902, P = 0.012) in HCC. In addition, the presence of Globo H, SSEA-3 and SSEA-4 in some HCC tissues and their absence in normal liver was established by immunohistochemistry staining and mass spectrometric analysis.