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Kérourédan O, Washio A, Handschin C, Devillard R, Kokabu S, Kitamura C, Tabata Y. Bioactive gelatin-sheets as novel biopapers to support prevascularization organized by laser-assisted bioprinting for bone tissue engineering. Biomed Mater 2024; 19:025038. [PMID: 38324892 DOI: 10.1088/1748-605x/ad270a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Despite significant advances in the management of patients with oral cancer, maxillofacial reconstruction after ablative surgery remains a clinical challenge. In bone tissue engineering, biofabrication strategies have been proposed as promising alternatives to solve issues associated with current therapies and to produce bone substitutes that mimic both the structure and function of native bone. Among them, laser-assisted bioprinting (LAB) has emerged as a relevant biofabrication method to print living cells and biomaterials with micrometric resolution onto a receiving substrate, also called 'biopaper'. Recent studies have demonstrated the benefits of prevascularization using LAB to promote vascularization and bone regeneration, but mechanical and biological optimization of the biopaper are needed. The aim of this study was to apply gelatin-sheet fabrication process to the development of a novel biopaper able to support prevascularization organized by LAB for bone tissue engineering applications. Gelatin-based sheets incorporating bioactive glasses (BGs) were produced using various freezing methods and crosslinking (CL) parameters. The different formulations were characterized in terms of microstructural, physical, mechanical, and biological properties in monoculture and coculture. Based on multi-criteria analysis, a rank scoring method was used to identify the most relevant formulations. The selected biopaper underwent additional characterization regarding its ability to support mineralization and vasculogenesis, its bioactivity potential andin vivodegradability. The biopaper 'Gel5wt% BG1wt%-slow freezing-CL160 °C 24 h' was selected as the best candidate, due to its suitable properties including high porosity (91.69 ± 1.55%), swelling ratio (91.61 ± 0.60%), Young modulus (3.97 × 104± 0.97 × 104Pa) but also its great cytocompatibility, osteogenesis and bioactivity properties. The preorganization of human umbilical vein endothelial cell using LAB onto this new biopaper led to the formation of microvascular networks. This biopaper was also shown to be compatible with 3D-molding and 3D-stacking strategies. This work allowed the development of a novel biopaper adapted to LAB with great potential for vascularized bone biofabrication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Kérourédan
- INSERM, U1026 BIOTIS, University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Bordeaux 33076, France
- Faculty of Dentistry, University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Bordeaux 33076, France
- CHU de Bordeaux, Pôle de Médecine et Chirurgie bucco-dentaire, Place Amélie Raba Léon, Bordeaux 33076, France
- CHU de Bordeaux, CCMR MOC-Maladies Osseuses Constitutionnelles, Place Amélie Raba Léon, Bordeaux 33076, France
- CHU de Bordeaux, CCMR O-Rares-Maladies Rares Orales et Dentaires, Place Amélie Raba Léon, Bordeaux 33076, France
- Laboratory of Biomaterials, Department of Regeneration Science and Engineering, Institute for Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Ayako Washio
- Division of Endodontics and Restorative Dentistry, Department of Science of Oral Functions, Kyushu Dental University, 2-6-1 Manazuru, Kokurakita-ku, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan
| | - Charles Handschin
- ART BioPrint, INSERM, U1026 BIOTIS, University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Bordeaux 33076, France
| | - Raphaël Devillard
- INSERM, U1026 BIOTIS, University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Bordeaux 33076, France
- Faculty of Dentistry, University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Bordeaux 33076, France
- CHU de Bordeaux, Pôle de Médecine et Chirurgie bucco-dentaire, Place Amélie Raba Léon, Bordeaux 33076, France
- CHU de Bordeaux, CCMR MOC-Maladies Osseuses Constitutionnelles, Place Amélie Raba Léon, Bordeaux 33076, France
- CHU de Bordeaux, CCMR O-Rares-Maladies Rares Orales et Dentaires, Place Amélie Raba Léon, Bordeaux 33076, France
| | - Shoichiro Kokabu
- Division of Molecular Signaling and Biochemistry, Department of Health Improvement, Kyushu Dental University, 2-6-1 Manazuru, Kokurakita-ku, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan
| | - Chiaki Kitamura
- Division of Endodontics and Restorative Dentistry, Department of Science of Oral Functions, Kyushu Dental University, 2-6-1 Manazuru, Kokurakita-ku, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan
| | - Yasuhiko Tabata
- Laboratory of Biomaterials, Department of Regeneration Science and Engineering, Institute for Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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Toosi S, Naderi-Meshkin H, Moradi A, Daliri M, Moghimi V, Majd HM, Sahebkar AH, Heirani-Tabasi A, Behravan J. Scaphoid Bone Nonunions: Clinical and Functional Outcomes of Collagen/PGA Scaffolds and Cell-Based Therapy. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2023; 9:1928-1939. [PMID: 36939654 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c00677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/21/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the procedure for treating the nonunion complication of scaphoid fractures using collagen/poly glycolic acid (CPGA) scaffolds with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (BM-MSC) therapy was adopted and compared with the commonly employed autologous bone tissue graft. With conducting a two-armed clinical trial, 10 patients with scaphoid nonunions were enrolled in this investigation. Patients were randomly assigned to two groups treated with (1) CPGA + cell therapy and (2) autologous iliac crest bone graft standard therapy. Treatment outcomes were evaluated three months after surgery, measuring the grip and pinch strengths and wrist range of motion, with two questionnaires: Patient-Rated Wrist Evaluation (PRWE) and Quick form of Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand (QDASH). We have also assessed the union rate using clinical and radiologic healing criteria one and three months post-operatively. Restorative effects of CPGA + cell therapy were similar to those of the autologous bone graft standard therapy, except for the grip strength (P = 0.048) and QDASH score (P = 0.044) changes, which were higher in the CPGA + cell therapy group. Three months following the surgery, radiographic images and computed tomography (CT) scans also demonstrated that the scaphoid union rate in the test group was comparable to that of scaphoids treated with the standard autograft method. Our findings demonstrate that the CPGA + cell therapy is a potential alternative for bone grafting in the treatment of bone nonunions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shirin Toosi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Science, Mahhad 9177899191, Iran
| | - Hojjat Naderi-Meshkin
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Research Group, Academic Center for Education Culture and Research (ACECR), Khorasan Razavi Branch, Mashhad 91775-1376, Iran
| | - Ali Moradi
- Orthopedics Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad 9177899191, Iran
| | - Mahla Daliri
- Orthopedics Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad 9177899191, Iran
| | - Vahid Moghimi
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Research Group, Academic Center for Education Culture and Research (ACECR), Khorasan Razavi Branch, Mashhad 91775-1376, Iran
| | - Hasan-Mehrad Majd
- Clinical Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad 91388-13944, Iran
| | - Amir Hossein Sahebkar
- Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad 9177899191, Iran
| | - Asieh Heirani-Tabasi
- Research Center for Advanced Technologies in Cardiovascular Medicine, Tehran Heart Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 14535, Iran
| | - Javad Behravan
- Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad 9177899191, Iran.,School of Pharmacy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
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3
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Gene Therapy for Regenerative Medicine. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15030856. [PMID: 36986717 PMCID: PMC10057434 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15030856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of biological methods over the past decade has stimulated great interest in the possibility to regenerate human tissues. Advances in stem cell research, gene therapy, and tissue engineering have accelerated the technology in tissue and organ regeneration. However, despite significant progress in this area, there are still several technical issues that must be addressed, especially in the clinical use of gene therapy. The aims of gene therapy include utilising cells to produce a suitable protein, silencing over-producing proteins, and genetically modifying and repairing cell functions that may affect disease conditions. While most current gene therapy clinical trials are based on cell- and viral-mediated approaches, non-viral gene transfection agents are emerging as potentially safe and effective in the treatment of a wide variety of genetic and acquired diseases. Gene therapy based on viral vectors may induce pathogenicity and immunogenicity. Therefore, significant efforts are being invested in non-viral vectors to enhance their efficiency to a level comparable to the viral vector. Non-viral technologies consist of plasmid-based expression systems containing a gene encoding, a therapeutic protein, and synthetic gene delivery systems. One possible approach to enhance non-viral vector ability or to be an alternative to viral vectors would be to use tissue engineering technology for regenerative medicine therapy. This review provides a critical view of gene therapy with a major focus on the development of regenerative medicine technologies to control the in vivo location and function of administered genes.
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Injectable pH-responsive adhesive hydrogels for bone tissue engineering inspired by the underwater attachment strategy of marine mussels. BIOMATERIALS ADVANCES 2022; 133:112606. [PMID: 35525750 PMCID: PMC9933951 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2021.112606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A major challenge in tissue engineering is the development of alternatives to traditional bone autografts and allografts that can regenerate critical-sized bone defects. Here we present the design of injectable pH-responsive double-crosslinked adhesive hydrogels inspired by the molecular mechanism and environmental post-processing of marine mussel adhesive. Nine adhesive hydrogel formulations were developed through the conjugation of crosslinkable catechol functional groups (DOPA) and the synthetic oligomer oligo[poly(ethylene glycol) fumarate] (OPF), varying the DOPA content (w/w%) and molecular weight (MW) of the OPF backbone to produce formulations with a range of swelling ratios, porosities, and crosslink densities. DOPA incorporation altered the surface chemistry, mechanical properties, and surface topography of hydrogels, resulting in an increase in material stiffness, slower degradation, and enhanced pre-osteoblast cell attachment and proliferation. When injected within simulated bone defects, DOPA-mediated interfacial adhesive interactions also prevented the displacement of scaffolds, an effect that was maintained even after swelling within physiological conditions. Taken together, OPF-DOPA hydrogels represent a promising new material to enhanced tissue integration and the prevention of the post-implantation migration of scaffolds that can occur due to biomechanical loading in vivo.
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Sun Y, Yuan Y, Wu W, Lei L, Zhang L. The effects of locomotion on bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell fate: insight into mechanical regulation and bone formation. Cell Biosci 2021; 11:88. [PMID: 34001272 PMCID: PMC8130302 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-021-00601-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) refer to a heterogeneous population of cells with the capacity for self-renewal. BMSCs have multi-directional differentiation potential and can differentiate into chondrocytes, osteoblasts, and adipocytes under specific microenvironment or mechanical regulation. The activities of BMSCs are closely related to bone quality. Previous studies have shown that BMSCs and their lineage-differentiated progeny (for example, osteoblasts), and osteocytes are mechanosensitive in bone. Thus, a goal of this review is to discuss how these ubiquious signals arising from mechanical stimulation are perceived by BMSCs and then how the cells respond to them. Studies in recent years reported a significant effect of locomotion on the migration, proliferation and differentiation of BMSCs, thus, contributing to our bone mass. This regulation is realized by the various intersecting signaling pathways including RhoA/Rock, IFG, BMP and Wnt signalling. The mechanoresponse of BMSCs also provides guidance for maintaining bone health by taking appropriate exercises. This review will summarize the regulatory effects of locomotion/mechanical loading on BMSCs activities. Besides, a number of signalling pathways govern MSC fate towards osteogenic or adipocytic differentiation will be discussed. The understanding of mechanoresponse of BMSCs makes the foundation for translational medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanxiu Sun
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yu Yuan
- School of Sport and Health, Guangzhou Sport University, Guangzhou, 510500, Guangdong, China
| | - Wei Wu
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, 200438, China
| | - Le Lei
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, 200438, China
| | - Lingli Zhang
- School of Physical Education & Sports Science, South China Normal University, 55 Zhongshan Road West, Tianhe District, Guangzhou, 510631, Guangdong, China.
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Low YJ, Andriyana A, Ang BC, Zainal Abidin NI. Bioresorbable and degradable behaviors of
PGA
: Current state and future prospects. POLYM ENG SCI 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/pen.25508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Jie Low
- Center of Advanced Materials, Faculty of Engineering University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
| | - Andri Andriyana
- Center of Advanced Materials, Faculty of Engineering University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
| | - Bee Chin Ang
- Center of Advanced Materials, Faculty of Engineering University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
| | - Nor Ishida Zainal Abidin
- Center of Advanced Materials, Faculty of Engineering University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
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Matsuno K, Saotome T, Shimada N, Nakamura K, Tabata Y. Effect of cell seeding methods on the distribution of cells into the gelatin hydrogel nonwoven fabric. Regen Ther 2020; 14:160-164. [PMID: 32110685 PMCID: PMC7033290 DOI: 10.1016/j.reth.2020.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/19/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kumiko Matsuno
- Research and Development Center, The Japan Wool Textile Co., Ltd., 440, Funamoto, Yoneda-cho, Kakogawa, Hyogo, 675-0053, Japan
- Laboratory of Biomaterials, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Kawara-cho, Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
- Research and Development Center, The Japan Wool Textile Co., Ltd., 440, Funamoto, Yoneda-cho, Kakogawa, Hyogo, 675-0053, Japan
- Research and Development Center, The Japan Wool Textile Co., Ltd., 440, Funamoto, Yoneda-cho, Kakogawa, Hyogo, 675-0053, Japan
- Laboratory of Biomaterials, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Kawara-cho, Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
- Laboratory of Biomaterials, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Kawara-cho, Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Toshiki Saotome
- Research and Development Center, The Japan Wool Textile Co., Ltd., 440, Funamoto, Yoneda-cho, Kakogawa, Hyogo, 675-0053, Japan
- Laboratory of Biomaterials, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Kawara-cho, Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
- Research and Development Center, The Japan Wool Textile Co., Ltd., 440, Funamoto, Yoneda-cho, Kakogawa, Hyogo, 675-0053, Japan
- Research and Development Center, The Japan Wool Textile Co., Ltd., 440, Funamoto, Yoneda-cho, Kakogawa, Hyogo, 675-0053, Japan
- Laboratory of Biomaterials, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Kawara-cho, Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
- Laboratory of Biomaterials, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Kawara-cho, Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Naoki Shimada
- Research and Development Center, The Japan Wool Textile Co., Ltd., 440, Funamoto, Yoneda-cho, Kakogawa, Hyogo, 675-0053, Japan
- Research and Development Center, The Japan Wool Textile Co., Ltd., 440, Funamoto, Yoneda-cho, Kakogawa, Hyogo, 675-0053, Japan
- Laboratory of Biomaterials, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Kawara-cho, Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
- Laboratory of Biomaterials, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Kawara-cho, Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Koichiro Nakamura
- Research and Development Center, The Japan Wool Textile Co., Ltd., 440, Funamoto, Yoneda-cho, Kakogawa, Hyogo, 675-0053, Japan
- Laboratory of Biomaterials, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Kawara-cho, Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
- Laboratory of Biomaterials, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Kawara-cho, Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Yasuhiko Tabata
- Laboratory of Biomaterials, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Kawara-cho, Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
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Hosseini V, Maroufi NF, Saghati S, Asadi N, Darabi M, Ahmad SNS, Hosseinkhani H, Rahbarghazi R. Current progress in hepatic tissue regeneration by tissue engineering. J Transl Med 2019; 17:383. [PMID: 31752920 PMCID: PMC6873477 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-019-02137-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver, as a vital organ, is responsible for a wide range of biological functions to maintain homeostasis and any type of damages to hepatic tissue contributes to disease progression and death. Viral infection, trauma, carcinoma, alcohol misuse and inborn errors of metabolism are common causes of liver diseases are a severe known reason for leading to end-stage liver disease or liver failure. In either way, liver transplantation is the only treatment option which is, however, hampered by the increasing scarcity of organ donor. Over the past years, considerable efforts have been directed toward liver regeneration aiming at developing new approaches and methodologies to enhance the transplantation process. These approaches include producing decellularized scaffolds from the liver organ, 3D bio-printing system, and nano-based 3D scaffolds to simulate the native liver microenvironment. The application of small molecules and micro-RNAs and genetic manipulation in favor of hepatic differentiation of distinct stem cells could also be exploited. All of these strategies will help to facilitate the application of stem cells in human medicine. This article reviews the most recent strategies to generate a high amount of mature hepatocyte-like cells and updates current knowledge on liver regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vahid Hosseini
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Imam Reza St., Golgasht St., Tabriz, 5166614756, Iran.,Department of Biochemistry and Clinical Laboratories, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Nazila Fathi Maroufi
- Department of Biochemistry and Clinical Laboratories, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Sepideh Saghati
- Department of Tissue Engineering, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Nahideh Asadi
- Department of Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Masoud Darabi
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Imam Reza St., Golgasht St., Tabriz, 5166614756, Iran.,Department of Biochemistry and Clinical Laboratories, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Saeed Nazari Soltan Ahmad
- Department of Biochemistry and Clinical Laboratories, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | | | - Reza Rahbarghazi
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
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9
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Li A, Sun M, Spill F, Sun R, Zaman MH. Are the Effects of Independent Biophysical Factors Linearly Additive? A 3D Tumor Migration Model. Biophys J 2019; 117:1702-1713. [PMID: 31630809 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2019.09.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Interstitial fluid flow plays a critical role in tumor cell invasion, yet this role has not been explored extensively in combination with other microenvironmental factors. Here, we establish a novel computational model of three-dimensional breast cancer cell migration to unveil the effect of interstitial fluid flow in the dependence of various extracellular matrix (ECM) physical properties. Our model integrates several principal factors: fluid dynamics, autologous chemotaxis, collagen fiber network structure, ECM stiffness, and cell-fiber and cell-flow interaction. First, independently with an aligned collagen fiber network and interstitial fluid flow, this model is validated by successfully reproducing the cell migration patterns. In the model, the interstitial fluid flow leads to directional symmetry breaking of chemotactic migration and synergizes with the ECM orientation to regulate cell migration. This synergy is universal in both the mesenchymal and the amoeboid migration modes, despite the fact that the cell-ECM interaction are different. Consequently, we construct a cell displacement function depending on these factors. Our cell migration model enables three-dimensional cancer migration prediction, mechanism exploration, and inhibition treatment design in a complex tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ang Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Hydrodynamics, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Meng Sun
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Fabian Spill
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; School of Mathematics, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Ren Sun
- MOE Key Laboratory of Hydrodynamics, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Muhammad H Zaman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts.
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10
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Krishnamurithy G, Murali MR, Hamdi M, Abbas AA, Raghavendran HB, Kamarul T. Proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stromal cells in a novel porous hydroxyapatite scaffold. Regen Med 2016; 10:579-90. [PMID: 26237702 DOI: 10.2217/rme.15.27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM To compare the effect of bovine bone derived porous hydroxyapatite (BDHA) scaffold on proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSCs) compared with commercial hydroxyapatite (CHA) scaffold. MATERIALS AND METHODS The porosity and pore size were analyzed using micro-CT. The biocompatibility was demonstrated by alamar blue assay, and cell attachment through SEM and Hoechst staining. The osteogenic differentiation was demonstrated using biochemical assay and osteogenic gene expression. RESULTS BDHA and CHA scaffolds showed porosity of 76.6 ± 0.6 and 64.3 ± 0.3% and pore size diameter of 0.04-0.25 and 0.1-2.6 mm, respectively. hMSCs proliferation, ALP activity, osteocalcin secretion and osteogenic gene expression are comparable in both the scaffolds. CONCLUSION These results demonstrated that BDHA is biocompatible, supports cell adhesion and promotes proliferation and osteogenic differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genasan Krishnamurithy
- Tissue Engineering Group (TEG), Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, NOCERAL, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK
| | - Malliga Raman Murali
- Tissue Engineering Group (TEG), Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, NOCERAL, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Hamdi
- Advanced Manufacturing & Material Processing Research Centre, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Azlina Amir Abbas
- Tissue Engineering Group (TEG), Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, NOCERAL, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Hanumantharao Balaji Raghavendran
- Tissue Engineering Group (TEG), Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, NOCERAL, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Tunku Kamarul
- Tissue Engineering Group (TEG), Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, NOCERAL, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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11
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Toosi S, Naderi-Meshkin H, Kalalinia F, Peivandi MT, HosseinKhani H, Bahrami AR, Heirani-Tabasi A, Mirahmadi M, Behravan J. PGA-incorporated collagen: Toward a biodegradable composite scaffold for bone-tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res A 2016; 104:2020-8. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.35736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2016] [Accepted: 03/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shirin Toosi
- Biotechnology Research Center; School of Pharmacy; Mashhad University of Medical Sciences; Mashhad Iran
| | - Hojjat Naderi-Meshkin
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research Group; Iranian Academic Center for Education; Culture and Research (ACECR), Khorasan Razavi Branch; Mashhad Iran
| | - Fatemeh Kalalinia
- Biotechnology Research Center; School of Pharmacy; Mashhad University of Medical Sciences; Mashhad Iran
- Medical Genetic Research Center; Medical School; Mashhad University of Medical Sciences; Mashhad Iran
| | - Mohammad Taghi Peivandi
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery; Orthopedic and Trauma Research Center; Mashhad University of Medical Sciences; Mashhad Iran
| | - Hossein HosseinKhani
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Engineering National Taiwan University of Science and Technology (NTUST); Taiwan
| | - Ahmad Reza Bahrami
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research Group; Iranian Academic Center for Education; Culture and Research (ACECR), Khorasan Razavi Branch; Mashhad Iran
| | - Asieh Heirani-Tabasi
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research Group; Iranian Academic Center for Education; Culture and Research (ACECR), Khorasan Razavi Branch; Mashhad Iran
| | - Mahdi Mirahmadi
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research Group; Iranian Academic Center for Education; Culture and Research (ACECR), Khorasan Razavi Branch; Mashhad Iran
| | - Javad Behravan
- Biotechnology Research Center; School of Pharmacy; Mashhad University of Medical Sciences; Mashhad Iran
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12
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Camarero-Espinosa S, Rothen-Rutishauser B, Foster EJ, Weder C. Articular cartilage: from formation to tissue engineering. Biomater Sci 2016; 4:734-67. [PMID: 26923076 DOI: 10.1039/c6bm00068a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Hyaline cartilage is the nonlinear, inhomogeneous, anisotropic, poro-viscoelastic connective tissue that serves as friction-reducing and load-bearing cushion in synovial joints and is vital for mammalian skeletal movements. Due to its avascular nature, low cell density, low proliferative activity and the tendency of chondrocytes to de-differentiate, cartilage cannot regenerate after injury, wear and tear, or degeneration through common diseases such as osteoarthritis. Therefore severe damage usually requires surgical intervention. Current clinical strategies to generate new tissue include debridement, microfracture, autologous chondrocyte transplantation, and mosaicplasty. While articular cartilage was predicted to be one of the first tissues to be successfully engineered, it proved to be challenging to reproduce the complex architecture and biomechanical properties of the native tissue. Despite significant research efforts, only a limited number of studies have evolved up to the clinical trial stage. This review article summarizes the current state of cartilage tissue engineering in the context of relevant biological aspects, such as the formation and growth of hyaline cartilage, its composition, structure and biomechanical properties. Special attention is given to materials development, scaffold designs, fabrication methods, and template-cell interactions, which are of great importance to the structure and functionality of the engineered tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Camarero-Espinosa
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
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13
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Hosseinkhani H, Abedini F, Ou KL, Domb AJ. Polymers in gene therapy technology. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.3432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Hosseinkhani
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Engineering; National Taiwan University of Science and Technology (Taiwan Tech); Taipei 10607 Taiwan
- Center of Excellence in Nanomedicine; National Taiwan University of Science and Technology (Taiwan Tech); Taipei 10607 Taiwan
- Research Center for Biomedical Devices and Prototyping Production, Research Center for Biomedical Implants and Microsurgery Devices, Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Tissue Engineering, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Department of Dentistry; Taipei Medical University-Shuang Ho Hospital; Taipei 235 Taiwan
| | - Fatemeh Abedini
- Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute; Karaj Alborz IRAN
| | - Keng-Liang Ou
- Research Center for Biomedical Devices and Prototyping Production, Research Center for Biomedical Implants and Microsurgery Devices, Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Tissue Engineering, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Department of Dentistry; Taipei Medical University-Shuang Ho Hospital; Taipei 235 Taiwan
| | - Abraham J. Domb
- Institute of Drug Research, The Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, School of Pharmacy-Faculty of Medicine; The Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Jerusalem 91120 Israel
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14
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Han HC, Lo HC, Wu CY, Chen KH, Chen LC, Ou KL, Hosseinkhani H. Nano-textured fluidic biochip as biological filter for selective survival of neuronal cells. J Biomed Mater Res A 2014; 103:2015-23. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.35338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hsieh-Cheng Han
- Research Center for Applied Sciences; Academia Sinica; Taipei 11529 Taiwan
| | - Hung-Chun Lo
- Center for Condensed Matter Sciences; National Taiwan University; Taipei 10617 Taiwan
| | - Chia-Yu Wu
- School of Dentistry; College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University; Taipei 110 Taiwan
- Division of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Department of Dentistry; Taipei Medical University Hospital; Taipei Taiwan
- Research Center for Biomedical Devices and Prototyping Production; Taipei Medical University; Taipei 110 Taiwan
| | - Kuei-Hsien Chen
- Center for Condensed Matter Sciences; National Taiwan University; Taipei 10617 Taiwan
- Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences; Academia Sinica; Taipei 10617 Taiwan
| | - Li-Chyong Chen
- Research Center for Applied Sciences; Academia Sinica; Taipei 11529 Taiwan
| | - Keng-Liang Ou
- Research Center for Biomedical Devices and Prototyping Production; Taipei Medical University; Taipei 110 Taiwan
- Nanomedicine Research Center of Taiwan; Taipei Medical University; Taipei 110 Taiwan
- Research Center for Biomedical Implants and Microsurgery Devices; Taipei Medical University; Taipei 110 Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering; College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University; Taipei 110 Taiwan
- Department of Dentistry; Taipei Medical University-Shuang-Ho Hospital; Taipei 110 Taiwan
| | - Hossein Hosseinkhani
- Research Center for Biomedical Devices and Prototyping Production; Taipei Medical University; Taipei 110 Taiwan
- Nanomedicine Research Center of Taiwan; Taipei Medical University; Taipei 110 Taiwan
- Research Center for Biomedical Implants and Microsurgery Devices; Taipei Medical University; Taipei 110 Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering; College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University; Taipei 110 Taiwan
- Department of Dentistry; Taipei Medical University-Shuang-Ho Hospital; Taipei 110 Taiwan. Graduate Institute of Biomedical Engineering; National Taiwan University of Science and Technology; Taipei 10607 Taiwan
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15
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Development of 3D in vitro technology for medical applications. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:17938-62. [PMID: 25299693 PMCID: PMC4227198 DOI: 10.3390/ijms151017938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2014] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/26/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In the past few years, biomaterials technologies together with significant efforts on developing biology have revolutionized the process of engineered materials. Three dimensional (3D) in vitro technology aims to develop set of tools that are simple, inexpensive, portable and robust that could be commercialized and used in various fields of biomedical sciences such as drug discovery, diagnostic tools, and therapeutic approaches in regenerative medicine. The proliferation of cells in the 3D scaffold needs an oxygen and nutrition supply. 3D scaffold materials should provide such an environment for cells living in close proximity. 3D scaffolds that are able to regenerate or restore tissue and/or organs have begun to revolutionize medicine and biomedical science. Scaffolds have been used to support and promote the regeneration of tissues. Different processing techniques have been developed to design and fabricate three dimensional scaffolds for tissue engineering implants. Throughout the chapters we discuss in this review, we inform the reader about the potential applications of different 3D in vitro systems that can be applied for fabricating a wider range of novel biomaterials for use in tissue engineering.
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16
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He W, Hosseinkhani H, Mohammadinejad R, Roveimiab Z, Hueng DY, Ou KL, Domb AJ. Polymeric nanoparticles for therapy and imaging. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.3381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wenjie He
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Engineering; National Taiwan University of Science and Technology (Taiwan Tech); Taipei 10607 Taiwan
| | - Hossein Hosseinkhani
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Engineering; National Taiwan University of Science and Technology (Taiwan Tech); Taipei 10607 Taiwan
- Nanomedicine Research Center of Taiwan, Research Center for Biomedical devices and Prototyping Production, Research Center for Biomedical Implants and Microsurgery Devices, Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering; College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, and Department of Dentistry, Taipei Medical University-Shuang-Ho Hospital; Taipei 110 Taiwan
| | - Reza Mohammadinejad
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Engineering; National Taiwan University of Science and Technology (Taiwan Tech); Taipei 10607 Taiwan
| | - Ziba Roveimiab
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Engineering; National Taiwan University of Science and Technology (Taiwan Tech); Taipei 10607 Taiwan
| | - Dueng-Yuan Hueng
- Department of Biochemistry; National Defense Medical Center, Department of Neurological Surgery, Tri-Service General Hospital; Taipei 114 Taiwan
| | - Keng-Liang Ou
- Nanomedicine Research Center of Taiwan, Research Center for Biomedical devices and Prototyping Production, Research Center for Biomedical Implants and Microsurgery Devices, Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering; College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, and Department of Dentistry, Taipei Medical University-Shuang-Ho Hospital; Taipei 110 Taiwan
| | - Abraham J. Domb
- Institute of Drug Research, The Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, School of Pharmacy-Faculty of Medicine; The Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Jerusalem 91120 Israel
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17
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Jahani H, Jalilian FA, Wu CY, Kaviani S, Soleimani M, Abbasi N, Ou KL, Hosseinkhani H. Controlled surface morphology and hydrophilicity of polycaprolactone toward selective differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells to neural like cells. J Biomed Mater Res A 2014; 103:1875-81. [PMID: 25203786 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.35328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Revised: 08/13/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) into neuron cells has great potential in therapy of damaged nerve tissue. It has been shown that three-dimensional biomaterials have great ability to up regulate the expression of neuronal proteins. In this study, O2 plasma technology was used to enhance hydrophilicity of poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL) toward selective differentiation of MSCs into neural cells. Random and aligned PCL nanofibers scaffolds were fabricated by electrospinning method and their physicochemical and mechanical properties were carried out by scanning electron microscope (SEM), contact angle, and tensile measurements. Contact angle studies of PCL and plasma treated PCL (p-PCL) nanofibers revealed significant change on the surface properties PCL nanofibers from the view point of hydrophilicity. Physiochemical studies revealed that p-PCL nanofibers were extremely hydrophilic compared with untreated PCL nanofibers which were highly hydrophobic and nonabsorbent to water. Differentiation of MSCs were carried out by inducing growth factors including basic fibroblast growth factor, nerve growth factor, and brain derived growth factor, NT3, 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX) in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium/F12 media. Differentiated MSCs on nanofibrous scaffold were examined by immunofluorescence assay and was found to express the neuronal proteins; β-tubulin III and Map2, on day 15 after cell culture. The real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis showed that p-PCL nanofibrous scaffold could upregulate expression of Map-2 and downregulate expression of Nestin genes in nerve cells differentiated from MSCs. This study indicates that mesenchymal stem cell cultured on nanofibrous scaffold have potential differentiation to neuronal cells on and could apply in nerve tissue repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoda Jahani
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran
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18
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Sonnaert M, Papantoniou I, Bloemen V, Kerckhofs G, Luyten FP, Schrooten J. Human periosteal-derived cell expansion in a perfusion bioreactor system: proliferation, differentiation and extracellular matrix formation. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2014; 11:519-530. [PMID: 25186024 DOI: 10.1002/term.1951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2013] [Revised: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Perfusion bioreactor systems have shown to be a valuable tool for the in vitro development of three-dimensional (3D) cell-carrier constructs. Their use for cell expansion, however, has been much less explored. Since maintenance of the initial cell phenotype is essential in this process, it is imperative to obtain insight into the bioreactor-related variables determining cell fate. Therefore, this study investigated the influence of fluid flow-induced shear stress on the proliferation, differentiation and matrix deposition of human periosteal-derived cells in the absence of additional differentiation-inducing stimuli; 120 000 cells were seeded on additive manufactured 3D Ti6Al4V scaffolds and cultured for up to 28 days at different flow rates in the range 0.04-6 ml/min. DNA measurements showed, on average, a three-fold increase in cell content for all perfused conditions in comparison to static controls, whereas the magnitude of the flow rate did not have an influence. Contrast-enhanced nanofocus X-ray computed tomography showed substantial formation of an engineered neotissue in all perfused conditions, resulting in a filling (up to 70%) of the total internal void volume, and no flow rate-dependent differences were observed. The expression of key osteogenic markers, such as RunX2, OCN, OPN and Col1, did not show any significant changes in comparison to static controls after 28 days of culture, with the exception of OSX at high flow rates. We therefore concluded that, in the absence of additional osteogenic stimuli, the investigated perfusion conditions increased cell proliferation but did not significantly enhance osteogenic differentiation, thus allowing for this process to be used for cell expansion. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Sonnaert
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Materials Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
| | - I Papantoniou
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.,Skeletal Biology and Engineering Research Centre, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
| | - V Bloemen
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.,Biomedical Engineering Research Team, Groep T, Leuven Engineering College (Association Katholieke Universiteit Leuven), Belgium
| | - G Kerckhofs
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Materials Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.,Biomechanics Research Unit, Université de Liege, Belgium
| | - F P Luyten
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.,Skeletal Biology and Engineering Research Centre, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
| | - J Schrooten
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Materials Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
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19
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Shi D, Tatu R, Liu Q, Hosseinkhani H. Stem Cell-Based Tissue Engineering for Regenerative Medicine. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1142/s1793984414300015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The applications of stem cells in tissue engineering will show great promise in generating tailor-made tissue/organs for clinical applications. This paper gives a review on a broad spectrum of areas in stem cell-based tissue engineering including neuron repair, cardiac patches, skin regeneration, gene therapy and cartilage tissue engineering. This paper is intended to serve as an informative tutorial for scientists and physicians from fields other than stem cells and tissue engineering. It will shed light on various strategies of target tissue/organ repair involving stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donglu Shi
- Key Laboratory of Basic Research in Cardiology of the Ministry of Education of China, Shanghai East Hospital, The Institute for Biomedical Engineering and Nano Science, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200120, P. R. China
- The Materials Science and Engineering Program, Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, College of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0072, USA
| | - Rigwed Tatu
- The Materials Science and Engineering Program, Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, College of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0072, USA
| | - Qing Liu
- Key Laboratory of Basic Research in Cardiology of the Ministry of Education of China, Shanghai East Hospital, The Institute for Biomedical Engineering and Nano Science, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200120, P. R. China
| | - Hossein Hosseinkhani
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei 10607, Taiwan
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20
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Dahl M, Jørgensen NR, Hørberg M, Pinholt EM. Carriers in mesenchymal stem cell osteoblast mineralization—State-of-the-art. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 2014; 42:41-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcms.2013.01.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2012] [Revised: 01/28/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
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21
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Dahl M, Syberg S, Jørgensen NR, Pinholt EM. Adipose derived mesenchymal stem cells – Their osteogenicity and osteoblast in vitro mineralization on titanium granule carriers. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 2013; 41:e213-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcms.2013.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2012] [Revised: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 01/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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22
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Gardel LS, Serra LA, Reis RL, Gomes ME. Use of perfusion bioreactors and large animal models for long bone tissue engineering. TISSUE ENGINEERING PART B-REVIEWS 2013; 20:126-46. [PMID: 23924374 DOI: 10.1089/ten.teb.2013.0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine (TERM) strategies for generation of new bone tissue includes the combined use of autologous or heterologous mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) and three-dimensional (3D) scaffold materials serving as structural support for the cells, that develop into tissue-like substitutes under appropriate in vitro culture conditions. This approach is very important due to the limitations and risks associated with autologous, as well as allogenic bone grafiting procedures currently used. However, the cultivation of osteoprogenitor cells in 3D scaffolds presents several challenges, such as the efficient transport of nutrient and oxygen and removal of waste products from the cells in the interior of the scaffold. In this context, perfusion bioreactor systems are key components for bone TERM, as many recent studies have shown that such systems can provide dynamic environments with enhanced diffusion of nutrients and therefore, perfusion can be used to generate grafts of clinically relevant sizes and shapes. Nevertheless, to determine whether a developed tissue-like substitute conforms to the requirements of biocompatibility, mechanical stability and safety, it must undergo rigorous testing both in vitro and in vivo. Results from in vitro studies can be difficult to extrapolate to the in vivo situation, and for this reason, the use of animal models is often an essential step in the testing of orthopedic implants before clinical use in humans. This review provides an overview of the concepts, advantages, and challenges associated with different types of perfusion bioreactor systems, particularly focusing on systems that may enable the generation of critical size tissue engineered constructs. Furthermore, this review discusses some of the most frequently used animal models, such as sheep and goats, to study the in vivo functionality of bone implant materials, in critical size defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leandro S Gardel
- 1 3B's Research Group-Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho , Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Guimarães, Portugal
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23
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Hosseinkhani H, Hiraoka Y, Li CH, Chen YR, Yu DS, Hong PD, Ou KL. Engineering three-dimensional collagen-IKVAV matrix to mimic neural microenvironment. ACS Chem Neurosci 2013; 4:1229-35. [PMID: 23705903 DOI: 10.1021/cn400075h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Engineering the cellular microenvironment has great potential to create a platform technology toward engineering of tissue and organs. This study aims to engineer a neural microenvironment through fabrication of three-dimensional (3D) engineered collagen matrixes mimicking in-vivo-like conditions. Collagen was chemically modified with a pentapeptide epitope consisting of isoleucine-lysine-valine-alanine-valine (IKVAV) to mimic laminin structure supports of the neural extracellular matrix (ECM). Three-dimensional collagen matrixes with and without IKVAV peptide modification were fabricated by freeze-drying technology and chemical cross-linking with glutaraldehyde. Structural information of 3D collagen matrixes indicated interconnected pores structure with an average pore size of 180 μm. Our results indicated that culture of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cells in 3D collagen matrix was greatly influenced by 3D culture method and significantly enhanced with engineered collagen matrix conjugated with IKVAV peptide. It may be concluded that an appropriate 3D culture of neurons enables DRG to positively improve the cellular fate toward further acceleration in tissue regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yosuke Hiraoka
- Life Science Laboratory, Nitta Gelatin Inc., Osaka 581-0024, Japan
| | | | - Yi-Ru Chen
- Core Laboratory Section, Tzu-Chi Hospital, Xindian Dist., New Taipei City 231,
Taiwan
| | | | | | - Keng-Liang Ou
- Graduate Institute
of Biomedical
Materials and Tissue Engineering, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110, Taiwan
- Department of Dentistry, Taipei Medical University-Shuang-Ho Hospital, Taipei
235, Taiwan
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24
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Dynamics of PEGylated-dextran-spermine nanoparticles for gene delivery to leukemic cells. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2013; 170:841-53. [PMID: 23615733 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-013-0224-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2011] [Accepted: 04/07/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Leukemic cells are hard-to-transfect cell lines. Many transfection reagents which can provide high gene transfer efficiency in common adherent cell lines are not effective to transfect established blood cell lines or primary leukemic cells. This study aims to examine a new class of cationic polymer non-viral vector, PEGylated-dextran-spermine (PEG-D-SPM), to determine its ability to transfect the leukemic cells. Here, the optimal conditions of the complex preparation (PEG-D-SPM/plasmid DNA (pDNA)) were examined. Different weight-mixing (w/w) ratios of PEG-D-SPM/pDNA complex were prepared to obtain an ideal mixing ratio to protect encapsulated pDNA from DNase degradation and to determine the optimal transfection efficiency of the complex. Strong complexation between polymer and pDNA in agarose gel electrophoresis and protection of pDNA from DNase were detected at ratios from 25 to 15. Highest gene expression was detected at w/w ratio of 18 in HL60 and K562 cells. However, gene expression from both leukemic cell lines was lower than the control MCF-7 cells. The cytotoxicity of PEG-D-SPM/pDNA complex at the most optimal mixing ratios was tested in HL60 and K562 cells using MTS assay and the results showed that the PEG-D-SPM/pDNA complex had no cytotoxic effect on these cell lines. Spherical shape and nano-nature of PEG-D-SPM/pDNA complex at ratio 18 was observed using transmission electron microscopy. As PEG-D-SPM showed modest transfection efficiency in the leukemic cell lines, we conclude that further work is needed to improve the delivery efficiency of the PEG-D-SPM.
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25
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Hosseinkhani H, Hong PD, Yu DS. Self-assembled proteins and peptides for regenerative medicine. Chem Rev 2013; 113:4837-61. [PMID: 23547530 DOI: 10.1021/cr300131h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Hosseinkhani
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology (Taiwan Tech), Taipei 10607, Taiwan.
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26
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Szpalski C, Sagebin F, Barbaro M, Warren SM. The influence of environmental factors on bone tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2012; 101:663-75. [PMID: 23165885 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.32849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2012] [Revised: 09/28/2012] [Accepted: 10/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Bone repair and regeneration are dynamic processes that involve a complex interplay between the substrate, local and systemic cells, and the milieu. Although each constituent plays an integral role in faithfully recreating the skeleton, investigators have long focused their efforts on scaffold materials and design, cytokine and hormone administration, and cell-based therapies. Only recently have the intangible aspects of the milieu received their due attention. In this review, we highlight the important influence of environmental factors on bone tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Szpalski
- Department of Plastic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
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27
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Coccia M. Cartilage tissue engineering with chondrogeneic cells versus artificial joint replacement: the insurgence of new technological paradigms. HEALTH AND TECHNOLOGY 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s12553-012-0032-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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28
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Hosseinkhani H, Hong PD, Yu DS, Chen YR, Ickowicz D, Farber IY, Domb AJ. Development of 3D in vitro platform technology to engineer mesenchymal stem cells. Int J Nanomedicine 2012; 7:3035-43. [PMID: 22802680 PMCID: PMC3396353 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s30434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aims to develop a three-dimensional in vitro culture system to genetically engineer mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) to express bone morphogenic protein-2. We employed nanofabrication technologies borrowed from the spinning industry, such as electrospinning, to mass-produce identical building blocks in a variety of shapes and sizes to fabricate electrospun nanofiber sheets comprised of composites of poly (glycolic acid) and collagen. Homogenous nanoparticles of cationic biodegradable natural polymer were formed by simple mixing of an aqueous solution of plasmid DNA encoded bone morphogenic protein-2 with the same volume of cationic polysaccharide, dextran-spermine. Rat bone marrow MSC were cultured on electrospun nanofiber sheets comprised of composites of poly (glycolic acid) and collagen prior to the incorporation of the nanoparticles into the nanofiber sheets. Bone morphogenic protein-2 was significantly detected in MSC cultured on nanofiber sheets incorporated with nanoparticles after 2 days compared with MSC cultured on nanofiber sheets incorporated with naked plasmid DNA. We conclude that the incorporation of nanoparticles into nanofiber sheets is a very promising strategy to genetically engineer MSC and can be used for further applications in regenerative medicine therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Hosseinkhani
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology (TAIWANTECH), Taipei, Taiwan.
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29
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Higuchi A, Ling QD, Hsu ST, Umezawa A. Biomimetic cell culture proteins as extracellular matrices for stem cell differentiation. Chem Rev 2012; 112:4507-40. [PMID: 22621236 DOI: 10.1021/cr3000169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Akon Higuchi
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Central University, Jhongli, Taoyuan, 32001 Taiwan.
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30
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Fabrication and characterization of a new MRI contrast agent based on a magnetic dextran–spermine nanoparticle system. IRANIAN POLYMER JOURNAL 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s13726-012-0027-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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31
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Guhathakurta S, Galla S, Ramesh B, Venugopal JR, Ramakrishna S, Cherian KM. Nanofiber-reinforced biological conduit in cardiac surgery: preliminary report. Asian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann 2012; 19:207-12. [PMID: 21885543 DOI: 10.1177/0218492311411315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Several options are available for right ventricular outflow tract reconstruction, including commercially available bovine jugular vein and cryo-preserved homografts. Homograft non-availability and the problems of commercially available conduits led us to develop indigenously processed bovine jugular vein conduits with competent valves. They were made completely acellular and strengthened by non-conventional cross-linking without disturbing the extracellular matrix, which improved the luminal surface characteristics for hemocompatibility. Biocompatibility in vitro and in vivo, along with thermal stability, matrix stability, and mechanical strength have been evaluated. Sixty-nine patients received these conduits for right ventricular outflow tract reconstruction. Seven conduits dilated and 4 required replacement. To counteract dilatation, biodegradable polymeric nanofibers in various combinations and in isolation (collagen, polycaprolactone, polylactic acid) were characterized and used to reinforce the conduit circumferentially. Physical validation by mechanical testing, scanning electron microscopy, and in-vitro cytotoxicity was conducted. Thermal stability, spectroscopy studies of the polymer, and preclinical studies of the coated bovine jugular vein in animals are in progress. The feasibility studies have been completed, and the final polymer selection depends on evaluation of the functional superiority of the coated bovine jugular vein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soma Guhathakurta
- Frontier Lifeline Pvt Ltd & Dr KM Cherian Heart Foundation, Ambattur Industrial Estate, Chennai-600101, India.
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Different effects of intermittent and continuous fluid shear stresses on osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells. Biomech Model Mechanobiol 2011; 11:391-401. [PMID: 21633819 DOI: 10.1007/s10237-011-0319-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2011] [Accepted: 05/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A reasonable mechanical microenvironment similar to the bone microenvironment in vivo is critical to the formation of engineering bone tissues. As fluid shear stress (FSS) produced by perfusion culture system can lead to the osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs), it is widely used in studies of bone tissue engineering. However, effects of FSS on the differentiation of hMSCs largely depend on the FSS application manner. It is interesting how different FSS application manners influence the differentiation of hMSCs. In this study, we examined the effects of intermittent FSS and continuous FSS on the osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs. The phosphorylation level of ERK1/2 and FAK is measured to investigate the effects of different FSS application manners on the activation of signaling molecules. The results showed that intermittent FSS could promote the osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs. The expression level of osteogenic genes and the alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity in cells under intermittent FSS application were significantly higher than those in cells under continuous FSS application. Moreover, intermittent FSS up-regulated the activity of ERK1/2 and FAK. Our study demonstrated that intermittent FSS is more effective to induce the osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs than continuous FSS.
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Fluid flow mechanotransduction in vascular smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts. Ann Biomed Eng 2011; 39:1608-19. [PMID: 21479754 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-011-0309-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2011] [Accepted: 04/04/2011] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Understanding how vascular wall endothelial cells (ECs), smooth muscle cells (SMCs), and fibroblasts (FBs) sense and transduce the stimuli of hemodynamic forces (shear stress, cyclic strain, and hydrostatic pressure) into intracellular biochemical signals is critical to prevent vascular disease development and progression. ECs lining the vessel lumen directly sense alterations in blood flow shear stress and then communicate with medial SMCs and adventitial FBs to regulate vessel function and disease. Shear stress mechanotransduction in ECs has been extensively studied and reviewed. In the case of endothelial damage, blood flow shear stress may directly act on the superficial layer of SMCs and transmural interstitial flow may be elevated on medial SMCs and adventitial FBs. Therefore, it is also important to investigate direct shear effects on vascular SMCs as well as FBs. The work published in the last two decades has shown that shear stress and interstitial flow have significant influences on vascular SMCs and FBs. This review summarizes work that considered direct shear effects on SMCs and FBs and provides the first comprehensive overview of the underlying mechanisms that modulate SMC secretion, alignment, contraction, proliferation, apoptosis, differentiation, and migration in response to 2-dimensional (2D) laminar, pulsatile, and oscillating flow shear stresses and 3D interstitial flow. A mechanistic model of flow sensing by SMCs is also provided to elucidate possible mechanotransduction pathways through surface glycocalyx, integrins, membrane receptors, ion channels, and primary cilia. Understanding flow-mediated mechanotransduction in SMCs and FBs and the interplay with ECs should be helpful in exploring strategies to prevent flow-initiated atherosclerosis and neointima formation and has implications in vascular tissue engineering.
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Sellgren KL, Ma T. Perfusion conditioning of hydroxyapatite-chitosan-gelatin scaffolds for bone tissue regeneration from human mesenchymal stem cells. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2011; 6:49-59. [DOI: 10.1002/term.396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2010] [Accepted: 11/11/2010] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Shi ZD, Wang H, Tarbell JM. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans mediate interstitial flow mechanotransduction regulating MMP-13 expression and cell motility via FAK-ERK in 3D collagen. PLoS One 2011; 6:e15956. [PMID: 21246051 PMCID: PMC3016412 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2010] [Accepted: 11/30/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Interstitial flow directly affects cells that reside in tissues and regulates
tissue physiology and pathology by modulating important cellular processes
including proliferation, differentiation, and migration. However, the structures
that cells utilize to sense interstitial flow in a 3-dimensional (3D) environment
have not yet been elucidated. Previously, we have shown that interstitial
flow upregulates matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression in rat vascular
smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and fibroblasts/myofibroblasts via activation of
an ERK1/2-c-Jun pathway, which in turn promotes cell migration in collagen.
Herein, we focused on uncovering the flow-induced mechanotransduction mechanism
in 3D. Methodology/Principal Findings Cleavage of rat vascular SMC surface glycocalyx heparan sulfate (HS) chains
from proteoglycan (PG) core proteins by heparinase or disruption of HS biosynthesis
by silencing N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase
1 (NDST1) suppressed interstitial flow-induced ERK1/2 activation, interstitial
collagenase (MMP-13) expression, and SMC motility in 3D collagen. Inhibition
or knockdown of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) also attenuated or blocked flow-induced
ERK1/2 activation, MMP-13 expression, and cell motility. Interstitial flow
induced FAK phosphorylation at Tyr925, and this activation was blocked when
heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) were disrupted. These data suggest that
HSPGs mediate interstitial flow-induced mechanotransduction through FAK-ERK.
In addition, we show that integrins are crucial for mechanotransduction through
HSPGs as they mediate cell spreading and maintain cytoskeletal rigidity. Conclusions/Significance We propose a conceptual mechanotransduction model wherein cell surface
glycocalyx HSPGs, in the presence of integrin-mediated cell-matrix adhesions
and cytoskeleton organization, sense interstitial flow and activate the FAK-ERK
signaling axis, leading to upregulation of MMP expression and cell motility
in 3D. This is the first study to describe a flow-induced mechanotransduction
mechanism via HSPG-mediated FAK activation in 3D. This study will be of interest
in understanding the flow-related mechanobiology in vascular lesion formation,
tissue morphogenesis, cancer cell metastasis, and stem cell differentiation
in 3D, and also has implications in tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhong-Dong Shi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering,
The City College of New York, The City University of New York (CUNY), New
York, New York, United States of America
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering,
The City College of New York, The City University of New York (CUNY), New
York, New York, United States of America
| | - John M. Tarbell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering,
The City College of New York, The City University of New York (CUNY), New
York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Mohajeri S, Hosseinkhani H, Ebrahimi NG, Nikfarjam L, Soleimani M, Kajbafzadeh AM. Proliferation and differentiation of mesenchymal stem cell on collagen sponge reinforced with polypropylene/polyethylene terephthalate blend fibers. Tissue Eng Part A 2010; 16:3821-30. [PMID: 20673024 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2009.0520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Although tissue-engineered scaffolds made from collagen sponge are suitable for cell infiltrating, easily supplying oxygen and nutrients to cells, and removing the waste products, their mechanical properties are not satisfactory to be used as scaffold materials for tissue engineering applications. To improve mechanical properties of collagen, a novel porous scaffold for bone tissue engineering was prepared with collagen sponge reinforced by polypropylene/polyethylene terephthalate (PP/PET) fibers. Collagen solution (6.33 mg/mL) with PP/PET fibers (collagen/fiber ratio [w/w]: 1.27, 0.63, 0.42, 0.25) was freeze-dried, followed by cross-linking of combined dehydrothermal and glutaraldehyde. A scanning electron microscopy-based analysis of surface of the sponges demonstrated that the sponge with collagen/fiber <0.25 exhibited homogenous and interconnected pore structure with an average pore size of 200 μm. Incorporation of PP/PET fibers significantly enhanced the compressive strength of the collagen sponge. Proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cell in collagen sponges reinforced with PP/PET fibers incorporation were significantly enhanced compared with collagen sponge without PP/PET incorporation. We conclude that incorporation of PP/PET fibers not only improves the mechanical properties of collagen sponge, but also enables mesenchymal stem cells to positively improve their proliferation and differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Mohajeri
- Polymer Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
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Bernhardt A, Lode A, Peters F, Gelinsky M. Optimization of culture conditions for osteogenically-induced mesenchymal stem cells in β-tricalcium phosphate ceramics with large interconnected channels. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2010; 5:444-53. [PMID: 20848550 DOI: 10.1002/term.331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2009] [Accepted: 04/27/2010] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to optimize culture conditions for human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) in β-tricalcium phosphate ceramics with large interconnected channels. Fully interconnected macrochannels comprising pore diameters of 750 µm and 1400 µm were inserted into microporous β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) scaffolds by milling. Human bone marrow-derived MSCs were seeded into the scaffolds and cultivated for up to 3 weeks in both static and perfusion culture in the presence of osteogenic supplements (dexamethasone, β-glycerophosphate, ascorbate). It was confirmed by scanning electron microscopic investigations and histological staining that the perfusion culture resulted in uniform distribution of cells inside the whole channel network, whereas the statically cultivated cells were primarily found at the surface of the ceramic samples. It was also determined that perfusion with standard medium containing 10% fetal calf serum (FCS) led to a strong increase (seven-fold) of cell numbers compared with static cultivation observed after 3 weeks. Perfusion with low-serum medium (2% FCS) resulted in moderate proliferation rates which were comparable to those achieved in static culture, although the specific alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity increased by a factor of more than 3 compared to static cultivation. Gene expression analysis of the ALP gene also revealed higher levels of ALP mRNA in low-serum perfused samples compared to statically cultivated constructs. In contrast, gene expression of the late osteogenic marker bone sialoprotein II (BSPII) was decreased for perfused samples compared to statically cultivated samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Bernhardt
- Max Bergmann Centre of Biomaterials and Institute for Materials Science, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany.
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Hosseinkhani H, Hosseinkhani M, Hattori S, Matsuoka R, Kawaguchi N. Micro and nano-scale in vitro 3D culture system for cardiac stem cells. J Biomed Mater Res A 2010; 94:1-8. [PMID: 20014298 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.32676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Despite the success to prevent or limit cardiovascular diseases, the restoration of the function of a damaged heart remains a formidable challenge. Cardiac stem cells (CSCs), with the capacity to differentiate into cardiomyocytes, hold great potential as a source of cells for regenerative medicine. A major challenge facing the clinical application of differentiated CSCs, however, is theability to generate sufficient numbers of cells with the desired phenotype. We previously established cell lines of CSCs using a c-kit antibody from adult rat hearts for use in regenerative medicine. C-kit -positive cardiac cells are well recognized as CSCs and have the potential to differentiate into cardiomyocytes. Here, before implant these cells in vivo, we first developed three-dimensional culture system (3D) using micro- and nano-scaled material. Sheets of poly(glycolic acid) (PGA) were fabricated by electrospinning. Composites of collagen-PGA were prepared that contained 0, 1.5, 3 or 6 mg of electrospun PGA nanofibers. The nanofibers were added as a sheet that formed a layer within the collagen sponge. The sponges were freeze-dried and then dehydrothermally crosslinked. A scanning electron microscopy (SEM)-based analysis of the surface of the sponges demonstrated a uniform collagenous structure regardless of the amount of PGA nanofibres included. The PGA nanofibers significantly enhanced the compressive strength of the collagen sponge. More CSCs attached to the collagen sponge incorporating 6 mg of PGA nanofibers than the sponge without PGA nanofibers. The attachment and proliferation of CSCs in the 3D culture was enhanced by incubation in a bioreactor perfusion system compared with 3D static and two-dimensional (2D; i.e. tissue culture plates) culture systems. The use of micro- and nano-scale materials in the fabrication of composites together with a 3D culture system is a very promising way to promote the culture of stem cells. (c) 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res, 2010.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Hosseinkhani
- International Research Institute for Integrated Medical Sciences (IREIIMS), Tokyo Women's Medical University, Tokyo 162-8666, Japan.
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Shi ZD, Abraham G, Tarbell JM. Shear stress modulation of smooth muscle cell marker genes in 2-D and 3-D depends on mechanotransduction by heparan sulfate proteoglycans and ERK1/2. PLoS One 2010; 5:e12196. [PMID: 20808940 PMCID: PMC2922372 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2010] [Accepted: 07/25/2010] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background During vascular injury, vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and fibroblasts/myofibroblasts (FBs/MFBs) are exposed to altered luminal blood flow or transmural interstitial flow. We investigate the effects of these two types of fluid flows on the phenotypes of SMCs and MFBs and the underlying mechanotransduction mechanisms. Methodology/Principal Findings Exposure to 8 dyn/cm2 laminar flow shear stress (2-dimensional, 2-D) for 15 h significantly reduced expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), smooth muscle protein 22 (SM22), SM myosin heavy chain (SM-MHC), smoothelin, and calponin. Cells suspended in collagen gels were exposed to interstitial flow (1 cmH2O, ∼0.05 dyn/cm2, 3-D), and after 6 h of exposure, expression of SM-MHC, smoothelin, and calponin were significantly reduced, while expression of α-SMA and SM22 were markedly enhanced. PD98059 (an ERK1/2 inhibitor) and heparinase III (an enzyme to cleave heparan sulfate) significantly blocked the effects of laminar flow on gene expression, and also reversed the effects of interstitial flow on SM-MHC, smoothelin, and calponin, but enhanced interstitial flow-induced expression of α-SMA and SM22. SMCs and MFBs have similar responses to fluid flow. Silencing ERK1/2 completely blocked the effects of both laminar flow and interstitial flow on SMC marker gene expression. Western blotting showed that both types of flows induced ERK1/2 activation that was inhibited by disruption of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs). Conclusions/Significance The results suggest that HSPG-mediated ERK1/2 activation is an important mechanotransduction pathway modulating SMC marker gene expression when SMCs and MFBs are exposed to flow. Fluid flow may be involved in vascular remodeling and lesion formation by affecting phenotypes of vascular wall cells. This study has implications in understanding the flow-related mechanobiology in vascular lesion formation, tumor cell invasion, and stem cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhong-Dong Shi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The City College of New York, The City University of New York (CUNY), New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail: (ZDS); (JMT)
| | - Giya Abraham
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The City College of New York, The City University of New York (CUNY), New York, New York, United States of America
| | - John M. Tarbell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The City College of New York, The City University of New York (CUNY), New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail: (ZDS); (JMT)
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Yamaoka H, Tanaka Y, Nishizawa S, Asawa Y, Takato T, Hoshi K. The application of atelocollagen gel in combination with porous scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering and its suitable conditions. J Biomed Mater Res A 2010; 93:123-32. [PMID: 19536835 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.32509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
For improving the quality of tissue-engineered cartilage, we examined the in vivo usefulness of porous bodies as scaffolds combined with an atelocollagen hydrogel, and investigated the suitable conditions for atelocollagen and seeding cells within the engineered tissues. We made tissue-engineered constructs using a collagen sponge (CS) or porous poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) with human chondrocytes and 1% hydrogel, the concentration of which maximized the accumulation of cartilage matrices. The CS was soft with a Young's modulus of less than 1 MPa, whereas the porous PLLA was very rigid with a Young's modulus of 10 MPa. Although the constructs with the CS shrank to 50% in size after a 2-month subcutaneous transplantation in nude mice, the PLLA constructs maintained their original sizes. Both of the porous scaffolds contained some cartilage regeneration in the presence of the chondrocytes and hydrogel, but the PLLA counterpart significantly accumulated abundant matrices in vivo. Regarding the conditions of the chondrocytes, the cartilage regeneration was improved in inverse proportion to the passage numbers among passages 3-8, and was linear with the cell densities (10(6) to 10(8) cells/mL). Thus, the rigid porous scaffold can maintain the size of the tissue-engineered cartilage and realize fair cartilage regeneration in vivo when combined with 1% atelocollagen and some conditioned chondrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Yamaoka
- Department of Cartilage & Bone Regeneration ,The University of Tokyo Hospital, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, Japan
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Yang J, Cao C, Wang W, Tong X, Shi D, Wu F, Zheng Q, Guo C, Pan Z, Gao C, Wang J. Proliferation and osteogenesis of immortalized bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells in porous polylactic glycolic acid scaffolds under perfusion culture. J Biomed Mater Res A 2010; 92:817-29. [PMID: 19280635 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.32378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) are promising candidates for cell therapy and tissue engineering. However, the life span of hMSCs during in vitro culture is limited. Human telomerase catalytic subunit (hTERT) gene transduction could prolong the life span of hMSCs and maintain their potential of osteogenic differentiation. Therefore, hMSCs transduced with hTERT (hTERT-hMSCs) could be used as a cell model for in vitro tissue engineering experiment because of its prolonged life span and normal cellular properties. A perfusion culture system for proliferation and osteogenesis of hTERT-hMSCs or primary hMSCs in porous polylactic glycolic acid (PLGA) scaffolds is described here. A cell suspension of hTERT-hMSCs or primary hMSCs (5 x 10(5) cells/250 microL) was seeded and then cultured for 12 days in porous PLGA scaffolds (10 mm in diameter, 3 mm in height) under both static and perfusion culture systems. The seeding efficiency, proliferation, distribution and viability, and osteogenesis of cells in scaffolds were evaluated. The perfusion method generated higher scaffold cellularity and proliferation of cells in scaffolds, and hTERT-hMSCs showed the higher proliferation potential than primary hMSCs. Results from fluorescein diacetate (FDA) staining and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) demonstrated homogeneous seeding, proliferation, and viability of hTERT-hMSCs throughout the scaffolds in the perfusion culture system. On the contrary, the static culture yielded polarized proliferation favoring the outer and upper scaffold surfaces, and resulted in decreasing of cells in the central section of the scaffolds. A flow rate of 0.5 mL/min had an effect on osteogenic differentiation of cells in scaffolds. However, the osteogenic medium promoted the osteogenic efficiency of cells. Scaffolds with hTERT-hMSCs had the higher osteogenesis than scaffolds with primary hMSCs. Thus, these results suggest that the flow condition not only allow a better seeding efficiency and homogeneity but also facilitate uniform proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of hTERT-hMSCs in scaffolds. hTERT-hMSCs could be used as stem cell candidates for bone tissue engineering experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinfeng Yang
- Laboratory of Stem Cells, Institute of Cell Biology, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
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LINDSTRÖM S, ILES A, PERSSON J, HOSSEINKHANI H, HOSSEINKHANI M, KHADEMHOSSEINI A, LINDSTRÖM H, Andersson-SVAHN H. Nanoporous Titania Coating of Microwell Chips for Stem Cell Culture and Analysis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1299/jbse.5.272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sara LINDSTRÖM
- Division of Nanobiotechnology, Royal Institute of Technology
| | | | - Johanna PERSSON
- Division of Nanobiotechnology, Royal Institute of Technology
| | | | - Mohsen HOSSEINKHANI
- Kyoto University Hospital, Dept of Cardiovascular Medicine
- Harvard-MIT, Division of Health Science and Technology
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Diao H, Wang J, Shen C, Xia S, Guo T, Dong L, Zhang C, Chen J, Zhao J, Zhang J. Improved cartilage regeneration utilizing mesenchymal stem cells in TGF-beta1 gene-activated scaffolds. Tissue Eng Part A 2009; 15:2687-98. [PMID: 19216641 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2008.0621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been paid more attention for cartilage regeneration. This study evaluated the potential of using MSCs seeded in plasmid transforming growth factor beta1 (pTGF-beta1)-activated three-dimensional chitosan/gelatin scaffolds for improving cartilage repair in vivo. Significant cell proliferation and transforming growth factor beta1 protein expression were observed in vitro in pTGFbeta1-activated scaffolds. Transforming growth factor beta1-activated scaffolds showed high collagen type II and aggrecan expression and low collagen type I expression during in vitro cultivation. MSC-based pTGF-beta1-activated scaffolds also exhibited cartilage histology with high secretion of collagen type II in vitro under the stimulation of pTGF-beta1. In rabbits with full-thickness cartilage defects, the implantation of MSC-based pTGF-beta1-activated scaffolds not only significantly promoted chondrogenic differentiation of MSCs and hyalin-like cartilage matrix synthesis, but also remarkably improved the overall repair of rabbit cartilage defects and exhibited favorable tissue integrity at 10 weeks postsurgery. These results suggest that MSC-based localized pTGF-beta1-activated scaffolds have potential applications for in vivo cartilage repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huajia Diao
- Department of Orthopaedics Surgery, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Jinling Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
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Hou Y, Song C, Xie WJ, Wei Z, Huang RP, Liu W, Zhang ZL, Shi YB. Excellent effect of three-dimensional culture condition on pancreatic islets. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2009; 86:11-5. [PMID: 19679368 DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2009.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2009] [Revised: 07/13/2009] [Accepted: 07/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
AIM Culture of cells in simulated microgravity may be potentially beneficial to the fields of cell biology and somatic cell therapy. We aimed to examine three-dimensional culture condition on pancreatic islets. METHODS Islets of Langerhans were cultured in conditions of stasis, microgravity, and microgravity with a polyglycolic acid (PGA) fibrous scaffold. After 5 days in culture, islets were transplanted into the leg muscles of streptozotocin-treated diabetic Wistar rats. The blood glucose and insulin content were determined from the tail vein blood of recipients. The grafts were then frozen, dried, and coated for analysis by scanning electron microscopy. RESULTS Grafts cultured in the three-dimensional conditions (simulated microgravity in the presence or absence of a PGA fibrous scaffold) were capable of significantly normalizing insulin production and blood glucose concentration when compared to control grafts (p<0.017). Scanning electron microscopy showed that the transplanted islets from three-dimensional culture groups demonstrated normal morphology with extracellular matrix on the surface. Islets in the PGA group exhibited well adhesion to PGA scaffolds. CONCLUSIONS The three-dimensional culture conditions significantly improved the function and morphology of the grafts. The function and morphology of the grafts in the microgravity with a scaffold group was the excellent one.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Hou
- Department of Biostatistics, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150086, China
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Wang J, Zhou W, Hu W, Zhou L, Wang S, Zhang S. Collagen/silk fibroin bi-template induced biomimetic bone-like substitutes. J Biomed Mater Res A 2009; 99:327-34. [PMID: 19705470 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.32602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2009] [Revised: 05/22/2009] [Accepted: 07/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A novel bi-template induced co-assembly method was employed to fabricate biomimetic bone substitute materials, collagen (COL)-fibroin/hydroxyapatite (COL-SF/HA) composite by using a combination of Type I COL and silk fibroin (SF) molecular templates. As a control, COL/HA and SF/HA composites were also synthesized via single-template assembly technology. The structure and morphology of the resulting assembly composites were investigated by X-ray diffractometer, Fourier transform infrared spectra, transmission electron microscope, and thermogravimetric analysis. Their sizes and size distributions were measured by DLS. The results indicated that the mineral phases in COL-SF/HA, COL-HA, and SF-HA composites were needle-like nano-HA crystals. In comparison to those in COL-HA and SF-HA, the mineral phase in COL-SF/HA displayed smaller size and more narrow distribution. Of all above biomimetic composites, the HA was well assembled with molecular template(s), and the organic content of the composite was about 12%-20%, which was quite similar to the natural bone in composition. CD and SDS-PAGE were used to examine the secondary structure and subunit composition of template proteins. The results revealed that the spatial structure of co-assembly template proteins played a pivotal role in controlling and regulating HA crystal nucleation and growth. Based on the experimental results above, a possible co-assembly mechanism for the HA growing on fibrous bi-template proteins was suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianglin Wang
- Advanced Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering Center, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, People's Republic of China
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Kuo YC, Ku IN. Application of polyethyleneimine-modified scaffolds to the regeneration of cartilaginous tissue. Biotechnol Prog 2009; 25:1459-67. [DOI: 10.1002/btpr.232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Hosseinkhani H, Hosseinkhani M, Gabrielson NP, Pack DW, Khademhosseini A, Kobayashi H. DNA nanoparticles encapsulated in 3D tissue-engineered scaffolds enhance osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells. J Biomed Mater Res A 2008; 85:47-60. [PMID: 17688252 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.31327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we enhanced the expression of a plasmid DNA in mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) by the combination of three-dimensional (3D) tissue-engineered scaffold and nonviral gene carrier. To function as an enhanced delivery of plasmid DNA, acetic anhydride was reacted with polyethylenimine (PEI) to acetylate 80% of the primary and 20% of the secondary amines (PEI-Ac(80)). This acetylated PEI has been demonstrated to show enhanced gene-delivery efficiency over unmodified PEI. Collagen sponges reinforced by incorporating of poly(glycolic acid) (PGA) fibers were used as the scaffold material. DNA nanoparticles formed through simple mixing of plasmid DNA encoding bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) and PEI-Ac(80) solutions were encapsulated within these scaffolds. MSC were seeded into each scaffold and cultured for several weeks. Within these scaffolds, the level of BMP-2 expression by transfected MSC was significantly enhanced compared to MSC transfected by DNA nanoparticles in solution (in 2D tissue culture plates). Homogeneous bone formation was histologically observed throughout the sponges seeded with transfected MSC by using DNA nanoparticles after subcutaneous implantation into the back of rats. The level of alkaline phosphatase activity and osteocalcin content at the implanted sites of sponges seeded with transfected MSC by using DNA nanoparticles were significantly higher when compared with those seeded with other agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Hosseinkhani
- International Center for Young Scientists, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan.
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Flow perfusion culture of human mesenchymal stem cells on silicate-substituted tricalcium phosphate scaffolds. Biomaterials 2008; 29:2616-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2008] [Accepted: 03/04/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Bernhardt A, Lode A, Boxberger S, Pompe W, Gelinsky M. Mineralised collagen--an artificial, extracellular bone matrix--improves osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2008; 19:269-75. [PMID: 17597360 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-006-0059-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2006] [Accepted: 11/29/2006] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
In the field of bone tissue engineering there is a high demand on bone graft materials which promote bone formation. By combination of collagen type I with nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite (HA) we generated a resorbable material which structure and composition is close to those of the extracellular bone matrix. This nanocomposite material was produced in a biomimetic process in which collagen fibril assembly and mineralisation with hydroxyapatite occur simultaneously. In this study the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of human bone marrow-derived stromal cells (hBMSC) on membranes of biomimetically mineralised collagen type I was investigated. To this end, we optimised biochemical assays for determination of cell number and alkaline phosphatase activity corresponding to the special properties of this biomaterial. For cell experiments hBMSC were seeded on the mineralised collagen membranes and cultivated over 35 days, both in static and perfusion culture, in the presence and absence of dexamethasone, beta-glycerophosphate and ascorbate. Compared to cells grown on tissue culture polystyrene we found attenuated proliferation rates, but markedly increased activity of alkaline phosphatase on the mineralised collagen indicating its promoting effect on the osteogenic differentiation of hBMSC. Therefore this bone-like material may act as a suitable artificial extracellular matrix for bone tissue engineering. Perfusion of the 2D cell matrix constructs with cell culture medium did not improve proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of the hBMSC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Bernhardt
- Max Bergmann Center of Biomaterials, Institute of Materials Science, Technische Universität Dresden, Budapester-Str. 27, 01069 Dresden, Germany.
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