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Al Enezy-Ulbrich MA, Belthle T, Malyaran H, Kučikas V, Küttner H, de Lange RD, van Zandvoort M, Neuss S, Pich A. Fibrin Hydrogels Reinforced by Reactive Microgels for Stimulus-Triggered Drug Administration. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024:e2309912. [PMID: 38898722 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202309912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Tissue engineering is a steadily growing field of research due to its wide-ranging applicability in the field of regenerative medicine. Application-dependent mechanical properties of a scaffold material as well as its biocompatibility and tailored functionality represent particular challenges. Here the properties of fibrin-based hydrogels reinforced by functional cytocompatible poly(N-vinylcaprolactam)-based (PVCL) microgels are studied and evaluated. The employment of temperature-responsive microgels decorated by epoxy groups for covalent binding to the fibrin is studied as a function of cross-linking degree within the microgels, microgel concentration, as well as temperature. Rheology reveals a strong correlation between the mechanical properties of the reinforced fibrin-based hydrogels and the microgel rigidity and concentration. The incorporated microgels serve as cross-links, which enable temperature-responsive behavior of the hydrogels, and slow down the hydrogel degradation. Microgels can be additionally used as carriers for active drugs, as demonstrated for dexamethasone. The microgels' temperature-responsiveness allows for triggered release of payload, which is monitored using a bioassay. The cytocompatibility of the microgel-reinforced fibrin-based hydrogels is demonstrated by LIVE/DEAD staining experiments using human mesenchymal stem cells. The microgel-reinforced hydrogels are a promising material for tissue engineering, owing to their superior mechanical performance and stability, possibility of drug release, and retained biocompatibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Aischa Al Enezy-Ulbrich
- Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Research Area Functional and Interactive Polymers, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstraße 50, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Thomke Belthle
- Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Research Area Functional and Interactive Polymers, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstraße 50, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Hanna Malyaran
- Helmholtz Institute for Biomedical Engineering, BioInterface Group, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstrasse 20, 52074, Aachen, Germany
- Institute of Pathology, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Vytautas Kučikas
- Institute for Molecular Cardiovascular Research (IMCAR), RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Hannah Küttner
- Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Research Area Functional and Interactive Polymers, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstraße 50, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Robert Dirk de Lange
- Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Research Area Functional and Interactive Polymers, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstraße 50, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Marc van Zandvoort
- Institute for Molecular Cardiovascular Research (IMCAR), RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074, Aachen, Germany
- Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 50, Maastricht, 6229 ER, Netherlands
| | - Sabine Neuss
- Helmholtz Institute for Biomedical Engineering, BioInterface Group, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstrasse 20, 52074, Aachen, Germany
- Institute of Pathology, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Andrij Pich
- Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Research Area Functional and Interactive Polymers, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstraße 50, 52074, Aachen, Germany
- Aachen-Maastricht Institute for Biobased Materials (AMIBM), Maastricht University, Urmonderbaan 22, 6167 RD Geleen, the Netherlands
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Kang HJ, Ko N, Oh SJ, An SY, Hwang YS, Kim SY. Injectable Human Hair Keratin-Fibrinogen Hydrogels for Engineering 3D Microenvironments to Accelerate Oral Tissue Regeneration. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:13269. [PMID: 34948063 PMCID: PMC8709435 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic injury of the oral cavity is atypical and often accompanied by uncontrolled bleeding and inflammation. Injectable hydrogels have been considered to be promising candidates for the treatment of oral injuries because of their simple formulation, minimally invasive application technique, and site-specific delivery. Fibrinogen-based hydrogels have been widely explored as effective materials for wound healing in tissue engineering due to their uniqueness. Recently, an injectable foam has taken the spotlight. However, the fibrin component of this biomaterial is relatively stiff. To address these challenges, we created keratin-conjugated fibrinogen (KRT-FIB). This study aimed to develop a novel keratin biomaterial and assess cell-biomaterial interactions. Consequently, a novel injectable KRT-FIB hydrogel was optimized through rheological measurements, and its injection performance, swelling behavior, and surface morphology were investigated. We observed an excellent cell viability, proliferation, and migration/cell-cell interaction, indicating that the novel KRT-FIB-injectable hydrogel is a promising platform for oral tissue regeneration with a high clinical applicability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeon Jeong Kang
- Department of Maxillofacial Biomedical Engineering and Institute of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea; (H.J.K.); (S.Y.A.)
| | - Nare Ko
- Biomedical Research Center, Asan Institute for Life Sciences, 88 Olympic-ro 43-gil, Songpa-gu, Seoul 05505, Korea;
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, 88 Olympic-ro 43-gil, Songpa-gu, Seoul 05505, Korea;
| | - Seung Jun Oh
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, 88 Olympic-ro 43-gil, Songpa-gu, Seoul 05505, Korea;
| | - Seong Yeong An
- Department of Maxillofacial Biomedical Engineering and Institute of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea; (H.J.K.); (S.Y.A.)
| | - Yu-Shik Hwang
- Department of Maxillofacial Biomedical Engineering and Institute of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea; (H.J.K.); (S.Y.A.)
| | - So Yeon Kim
- Department of Dental Hygiene, College of Health & Medical Sciences, Cheongju University, Cheongju 28503, Korea
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Guo B, Dong R, Liang Y, Li M. Haemostatic materials for wound healing applications. Nat Rev Chem 2021; 5:773-791. [PMID: 37117664 DOI: 10.1038/s41570-021-00323-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 338] [Impact Index Per Article: 112.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Wounds are one of the most common health issues, and the cost of wound care and healing has continued to increase over the past decade. The first step in wound healing is haemostasis, and the development of haemostatic materials that aid wound healing has accelerated in the past 5 years. Numerous haemostatic materials have been fabricated, composed of different active components (including natural polymers, synthetic polymers, silicon-based materials and metal-containing materials) and in various forms (including sponges, hydrogels, nanofibres and particles). In this Review, we provide an overview of haemostatic materials in wound healing, focusing on their chemical design and operation. We describe the physiological process of haemostasis to elucidate the principles that underpin the design of haemostatic wound dressings. We also highlight the advantages and limitations of the different active components and forms of haemostatic materials. The main challenges and future directions in the development of haemostatic materials for wound healing are proposed.
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Iyer K, Chen Z, Ganapa T, Wu BM, Tawil B, Linsley CS. Keratinocyte Migration in a Three-Dimensional In Vitro Wound Healing Model Co-Cultured with Fibroblasts. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2018; 15:721-733. [PMID: 30603591 DOI: 10.1007/s13770-018-0145-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Because three-dimensional (3D) models more closely mimic native tissues, one of the goals of 3D in vitro tissue models is to aid in the development and toxicity screening of new drug therapies. In this study, a 3D skin wound healing model comprising of a collagen type I construct with fibrin-filled defects was developed. Methods Optical imaging was used to measure keratinocyte migration in the presence of fibroblasts over 7 days onto the fibrin-filled defects. Additionally, cell viability and growth of fibroblasts and keratinocytes was measured using the alamarBlue® assay and changes in the mechanical stiffness of the 3D construct was monitored using compressive indentation testing. Results Keratinocyte migration rate was significantly increased in the presence of fibroblasts with the cells reaching the center of the defect as early as day 3 in the co-culture constructs compared to day 7 for the control keratinocyte monoculture constructs. Additionally, constructs with the greatest rate of keratinocyte migration had reduced cell growth. When fibroblasts were cultured alone in the wound healing construct, there was a 1.3 to 3.4-fold increase in cell growth and a 1.2 to 1.4-fold increase in cell growth for keratinocyte monocultures. However, co-culture constructs exhibited no significant growth over 7 days. Finally, mechanical testing showed that fibroblasts and keratinocytes had varying effects on matrix stiffness with fibroblasts degrading the constructs while keratinocytes increased the construct's stiffness. Conclusion This 3D in vitro wound healing model is a step towards developing a mimetic construct that recapitulates the complex microenvironment of healing wounds and could aid in the early studies of novel therapeutics that promote migration and proliferation of epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kritika Iyer
- 1Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, 420 Westwood Plaza, Room 5121, Engineering V, P.O. Box 951600, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1600 USA
| | - Zhuo Chen
- 1Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, 420 Westwood Plaza, Room 5121, Engineering V, P.O. Box 951600, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1600 USA
| | - Teja Ganapa
- 1Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, 420 Westwood Plaza, Room 5121, Engineering V, P.O. Box 951600, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1600 USA
| | - Benjamin M Wu
- 1Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, 420 Westwood Plaza, Room 5121, Engineering V, P.O. Box 951600, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1600 USA.,2Division of Advanced Prosthodontics and the Weintraub Center for Reconstructive Biotechnology, School of Dentistry, University of California, Los Angeles, 10833 Le Conte Ave, Los Angeles, CA 90095 USA
| | - Bill Tawil
- 1Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, 420 Westwood Plaza, Room 5121, Engineering V, P.O. Box 951600, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1600 USA
| | - Chase S Linsley
- 1Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, 420 Westwood Plaza, Room 5121, Engineering V, P.O. Box 951600, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1600 USA
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Brejchova K, Trosan P, Studeny P, Skalicka P, Utheim TP, Bednar J, Jirsova K. Characterization and comparison of human limbal explant cultures grown under defined and xeno-free conditions. Exp Eye Res 2018; 176:20-28. [PMID: 29928900 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2018.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Human limbal epithelial cells (LECs) intended for treatment of limbal stem cell deficiency are commonly cultivated on a 3T3 feeder layer with complex culture medium supplemented with fetal bovine serum (FBS). However, FBS is a xenogeneic component containing poorly characterised constituents and exhibits quantitative and qualitative lot-to-lot variations. Human limbal explants were plated on untreated or fibrin coated plastic plates and cultured in two non-xenogeneic media (supplemented with either human serum or platelet lysate only). Our aim was to find out whether the characteristics of harvested LEC cultures are comparable to those of LEC cultivated in the gold standard - FBS-supplemented complex medium. The growth kinetics, cell proliferation, differentiation, stemness maintenance, apoptosis and contamination by other cell types were evaluated and compared among these conditions. In all of them LECs were successfully cultivated. Stemness was preserved in both xeno-free media. However, cells cultured with human serum on the fibrin-coated plates had the highest growth rate and cell proliferation and very low fibroblast-like cell contamination. These data suggest that xeno-free cell culture conditions can replace the traditional FBS-supplemented medium and thereby provide a safer protocol for ex vivo cultured limbal stem cell transplants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristyna Brejchova
- Research Unit for Rare Diseases, Clinic of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Ke Karlovu 2, 128 08 Prague 2, Czech Republic; Laboratory of the Biology and Pathology of the Eye, Institute of Biology and Medical Genetics, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Albertov 4, 128 00 Prague 2, Czech Republic.
| | - Peter Trosan
- Laboratory of the Biology and Pathology of the Eye, Institute of Biology and Medical Genetics, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Albertov 4, 128 00 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Studeny
- Ophthalmology Department of 3rd Medical Faculty and University Hospital Kralovske Vinohrady, Šrobárova 1150/50, 100 34 Prague 10, Czech Republic
| | - Pavlina Skalicka
- Research Unit for Rare Diseases, Clinic of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Ke Karlovu 2, 128 08 Prague 2, Czech Republic; Department of Ophthalmology, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, U nemocnice 499/2, 128 08 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Tor Paaske Utheim
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Kirkeveien 166, 0407 Oslo, Norway; Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Oslo University Hospital, Kirkeveien 166, 0407 Oslo, Norway
| | - Jan Bednar
- Laboratory of the Biology and Pathology of the Eye, Institute of Biology and Medical Genetics, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Albertov 4, 128 00 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Katerina Jirsova
- Laboratory of the Biology and Pathology of the Eye, Institute of Biology and Medical Genetics, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Albertov 4, 128 00 Prague 2, Czech Republic; Ophthalmology Department of 3rd Medical Faculty and University Hospital Kralovske Vinohrady, Šrobárova 1150/50, 100 34 Prague 10, Czech Republic
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Chopin-Doroteo M, Salgado-Curiel RM, Pérez-González J, Marín-Santibáñez BM, Krötzsch E. Fibroblast populated collagen lattices exhibit opposite biophysical conditions by fibrin or hyaluronic acid supplementation. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2018; 82:310-319. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2018.03.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Revised: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 03/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Law JX, Chowdhury SR, Aminuddin BS, Ruszymah BHI. Role of plasma-derived fibrin on keratinocyte and fibroblast wound healing. Cell Tissue Bank 2017; 18:585-595. [PMID: 28748415 DOI: 10.1007/s10561-017-9645-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 07/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Fibrin has excellent biocompatibility and biological properties to support tissue regeneration and promote wound healing. However, the role of diluted fibrin in wound healing has yet to be elucidated as it is commonly used in high concentration. This study was aimed to examine the effects of diluted plasma-derived fibrin (PDF) on keratinocyte and fibroblast wound healing in term of cell proliferation, migration, extracellular matrix (ECM) production and soluble factor secretion. Two PDF concentrations, 10 and 20% (v/v) were tested on keratinocytes and fibroblasts indirectly co-cultured in the transwell system. The control group was cultured with 5% FBS. Results showed that PDF reduced the keratinocyte growth rate and fibroblast migration, and increased the fibroblast ECM gene expression whereby significant differences were found between the 20% PDF group and the 5% FBS group. Similar trend was seen for the 10% PDF group but the differences were not significant. Comparison of the soluble factors between the PDF groups demonstrated that the level of growth-related oncogene alpha, interleukin-8 and epithelial neutrophil-activating peptide-78 were significantly higher in the 10% PDF group, whilst interleukin-1 alpha and granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor were significantly more concentrated in the 20% PDF group. Our results suggested that PDF selectively elevated the expression of collagen type 1 and collagen type 3 in fibroblasts but slowed down the migration in concentration-dependent manner. These novel findings provide new insight into the role of PDF in wound healing and may have important implications for the use of fibrin in skin tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Xian Law
- Tissue Engineering Centre, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Shiplu Roy Chowdhury
- Tissue Engineering Centre, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Bin Saim Aminuddin
- Ear, Nose and Throat Consultant Clinic, Ampang Puteri Specialist Hospital, Ampang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Binti Haji Idrus Ruszymah
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, Jalan Yaacob Latif, Bandar Tun Razak, 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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Kanapathy M, Hachach‐Haram N, Bystrzonowski N, Connelly JT, O'Toole EA, Becker DL, Mosahebi A, Richards T. Epidermal grafting for wound healing: a review on the harvesting systems, the ultrastructure of the graft and the mechanism of wound healing. Int Wound J 2017; 14:16-23. [PMID: 27785878 PMCID: PMC7950150 DOI: 10.1111/iwj.12686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidermal grafting for wound healing involves the transfer of the epidermis from a healthy location to cover a wound. The structural difference of the epidermal graft in comparison to the split-thickness skin graft and full-thickness skin graft contributes to the mechanism of effect. While skin grafting is an epidermal transfer, little is known about the precise mechanism of wound healing by epidermal graft. This paper aims to explore the evolution of the epidermal graft harvesting system over the last five decades, the structural advantages of epidermal graft for wound healing and the current hypotheses on the mechanism of wound healing by epidermal graft. Three mechanisms are proposed: keratinocyte activation, growth factor secretion and reepithelialisation from the wound edge. We evaluate and explain how these processes work and integrate to promote wound healing based on the current in vivo and in vitro evidence. We also review the ongoing clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of epidermal graft for wound healing. The epidermal graft is a promising alternative to the more invasive conventional surgical techniques as it is simple, less expensive and reduces the surgical burden for patients in need of wound coverage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muholan Kanapathy
- Division of Surgery & Interventional ScienceUniversity College LondonLondonUK
- London Wound Healing Group, Department of Plastic and Reconstructive SurgeryRoyal Free NHS Foundation Trust HospitalLondonUK
| | - Nadine Hachach‐Haram
- London Wound Healing Group, Department of Plastic and Reconstructive SurgeryRoyal Free NHS Foundation Trust HospitalLondonUK
| | - Nicola Bystrzonowski
- London Wound Healing Group, Department of Plastic and Reconstructive SurgeryRoyal Free NHS Foundation Trust HospitalLondonUK
| | - John T Connelly
- Centre for Cell Biology and Cutaneous Research, The Blizard InstituteBarts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of LondonLondonUK
| | - Edel A O'Toole
- Centre for Cell Biology and Cutaneous Research, The Blizard InstituteBarts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of LondonLondonUK
| | - David L Becker
- Lee Kong Chian School of MedicineNanyang Technological UniversitySingaporeSingapore
- Institute of Medical BiologyA*Star, Immunos, Biomedical GroveSingaporeSingapore
| | - Afshin Mosahebi
- Division of Surgery & Interventional ScienceUniversity College LondonLondonUK
- London Wound Healing Group, Department of Plastic and Reconstructive SurgeryRoyal Free NHS Foundation Trust HospitalLondonUK
| | - Toby Richards
- Division of Surgery & Interventional ScienceUniversity College LondonLondonUK
- London Wound Healing Group, Department of Plastic and Reconstructive SurgeryRoyal Free NHS Foundation Trust HospitalLondonUK
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Linsley CS, Wu BM, Tawil B. Mesenchymal stem cell growth on and mechanical properties of fibrin-based biomimetic bone scaffolds. J Biomed Mater Res A 2016; 104:2945-2953. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.35840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chase S. Linsley
- Department of Bioengineering; University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles California 90095
| | - Benjamin M. Wu
- Department of Bioengineering; University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles California 90095
- Division of Advanced Prosthodontics and the Weintraub Center for Reconstructive Biotechnology; University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles California 90095
| | - Bill Tawil
- Department of Bioengineering; University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles California 90095
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