Pattern of spread to the lateral neck in metastatic well-differentiated thyroid cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Prediction of lateral neck metastasis in patients with papillary thyroid cancer with suspicious lateral lymph ultrasonic imaging based on central lymph node metastasis features

Neck lymphatic metastasis is a common occurrence with thyroid cancers, and pre operative lateral lymph node metastasis (LLNM) and postoperative lateral lymph node recurrence (LLNR) are two independent risk factors that are negatively associated with the prognosis of patients with thyroid cancer. The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship between central lymph node metastasis (CLNM) and LLNM in patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) with sonographically suspected LLNM, such as those without lymph node fine-needle aspiration (FNA) cytological results or negative FNA results at the time of diagnosis. The predictive ability of CLNM regarding LLNR was also investigated. The present study retrospectively reviewed the clinical data of 1,061 patients that were surgically treated for PTC and 128 patients with sonographically suspected lateral lymph nodes that received central lymph node dissection and lateral lymph node dissection at the Thyroid Department of The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University (Hefei, China) from June 2019 to June 2021. In patients with suspicious ultrasonic images suggesting LLNM, a significant association between the central lymph node ratio (CLNR), the number of positive central lymph nodes and LLNM was demonstrated. Otherwise, there were no statistically significant differences between the CLNR in patients with PTC and patients with PTC without evidence of lateral cervical metastasis. However, the rate of LLNR increased significantly when the number of positive central lymph nodes was >3. In conclusion, the CLNR and the number of positive central lymph nodes could be used to predict LLNM in patients with PTC with sonographically suspect lateral lymph nodes, including those with no FNA cytological results or negative FNA results, which may potentially support physicians in making personalized clinical decisions.

Risk factors and distribution pattern of lateral lymph node recurrence after central neck dissection for cN1a papillary thyroid carcinoma

BACKGROUND

The indication and extent of selective lateral neck dissection (LND) for cN1a papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) remain uncertain. The present study aimed to identify potential predictors and distribution pattern of lateral lymph node recurrence (LLNR) after central neck dissection in cN1a PTC patients.

METHODS

The cN1a PTC patients who underwent initial central neck dissection at our centre were retrospectively reviewed, and the median follow-up period was 6.8 years. Reoperation with LND was performed when LLNR was confirmed. Risk factors for LLNR were identified, and the metastatic status of each lateral level was recorded.

RESULTS

Of the 310 patients enrolled in the present study, fifty-eight patients (18.7%) presented with LLNR. Six independent factors, including tumour diameter, pathological T4 stage, number of involved central lymph nodes, pTNM stage, extrathyroidal extension, and I131 treatment (P values < 0.05) were identified via multivariate analysis. LLNR was found at level II in 26 patients (44.8%), level III in 38 patients (65.5%), level IV in 30 patients (51.7%), and level V in 8 patients (13.8%). The number of positive lateral lymph nodes at levels II, III, IV and V was 44 (22.9%), 76 (39.6%), 63 (32.8%), and 9 (4.9%), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

For cN1a PTC patients who underwent central neck dissection, tumour diameter ≥ 2 cm, pathological T4 stage, number of involved central lymph nodes ≥ 3, pTNM stage III-IV, extrathyroidal extension, and failure to receive I131 treatment were independent predictors of LLNR, which was more likely to occur at levels III and IV.

Feasibility of remote-access and minimally invasive video-assisted approaches in lateral neck dissection for papillary thyroid carcinoma: A systematic review and network meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

This study was conducted to evaluate the feasibility and surgical outcomes of minimally invasive video-assisted thyroidectomy (MIVAT) and three remote-access approaches, namely the robotic bilateral axillo-breast approach (BABA-R), endoscopic breast-chest approach (BCA-E), and robotic gasless transaxillary approach (GTAA-R) in lateral neck dissection for papillary thyroid carcinoma, compared with conventional transcervical approach (CTA).

METHODS

The literature search was conducted in the PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases, covering the period January 2000 to February 2024. A systematic review and network meta-analysis were performed to compare surgical feasibility, safety, and oncologic outcomes between approaches.

RESULTS

Fourteen articles on lateral neck dissection in patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma were included after systematic screening. The number of removed and metastatic lateral lymph nodes, the extent of lateral neck dissection, the rate of transient recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy and hypoparathyroidism, serum-stimulated thyroglobulin levels, and recurrence were not significantly different between the MIVAT and three remote-access approaches. Additionally, these were comparable to those of the CTA. However, the MIVAT and remote-access approaches took a longer operative time but provided superior cosmetic outcomes compared to the CTA.

CONCLUSION

Lateral neck dissection using the MIVAT and three remote-access approaches was feasible and comparable to CTA in the number of lymph nodes removed, complications, stimulated thyroglobulin level, and recurrence. The MIVAT and remote-access approaches lasted longer but provided significantly superior cosmetic outcomes compared to the CTA.

Cervical lymph node metastasis prediction from papillary thyroid carcinoma US videos: a prospective multicenter study

BACKGROUND

Prediction of lymph node metastasis (LNM) is critical for individualized management of papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) patients to avoid unnecessary overtreatment as well as undesired under-treatment. Artificial intelligence (AI) trained by thyroid ultrasound (US) may improve prediction performance.

METHODS

From September 2017 to December 2018, patients with suspicious PTC from the first medical center of the Chinese PLA general hospital were retrospectively enrolled to pre-train the multi-scale, multi-frame, and dual-direction deep learning (MMD-DL) model. From January 2019 to July 2021, PTC patients from four different centers were prospectively enrolled to fine-tune and independently validate MMD-DL. Its diagnostic performance and auxiliary effect on radiologists were analyzed in terms of receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, areas under the ROC curve (AUC), accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity.

RESULTS

In total, 488 PTC patients were enrolled in the pre-training cohort, and 218 PTC patients were included for model fine-tuning (n = 109), internal test (n = 39), and external validation (n = 70). Diagnostic performances of MMD-DL achieved AUCs of 0.85 (95% CI: 0.73, 0.97) and 0.81 (95% CI: 0.73, 0.89) in the test and validation cohorts, respectively, and US radiologists significantly improved their average diagnostic accuracy (57% vs. 60%, P = 0.001) and sensitivity (62% vs. 65%, P < 0.001) by using the AI model for assistance.

CONCLUSIONS

The AI model using US videos can provide accurate and reproducible prediction of cervical lymph node metastasis in papillary thyroid carcinoma patients preoperatively, and it can be used as an effective assisting tool to improve diagnostic performance of US radiologists.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

We registered on the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry website with the number ChiCTR1900025592.

Improvement in Central Neck Dissection Quality in Thyroid Cancer by Use of Tissue Autofluorescence

BACKGROUND

Risk of postoperative transient or permanent hypoparathyroidism represents one of the most common complications following total thyroidectomy. This risk increases if a cervical lymphadenectomy procedure must also be performed, as is usually the case in thyroid carcinoma patients. Parathyroid autofluorescence (AF) is a non-invasive method that aids intraoperative identification of parathyroid glands.

METHODS

In this prospective study, 189 patients with papillary thyroid cancer who underwent total thyroidectomy with central neck dissection were included. Patients were randomly allocated to one of two groups: NAF (no AF, surgery was performed without AF) and the AF group (surgery was performed with AF-Fluobeam LX system, Fluoptics, Grenoble, France).

RESULTS

The number of excised lymph nodes was significantly higher in the AF compared to the NAF group, with mean values of 21.3 ± 4.8 and 9.2 ± 4.1, respectively. Furthermore, a significantly higher number of metastatic lymph nodes were observed in the AF group. Transient hypocalcemia recorded significantly lower rates in the AF group with 4.9% compared to 16.8% in the NAF group.

CONCLUSIONS

AF use during total thyroidectomy with central neck dissection for papillary thyroid carcinoma patients, decreased the rate of iatrogenic parathyroid gland lesions, and increased the rate of lymphatic clearance.

Management of surgical diseases of thyroid gland indications of the United Italian Society of Endocrine Surgery (SIUEC)

A task force of the United Italian society of Endocrine Surgery (SIUEC) was commissioned to review the position statement on diagnostic, therapeutic and health‑care management protocol in thyroid surgery published in 2016, at the light of new technologies, recent oncological concepts, and tailored approaches. The objective of this publication was to support surgeons with modern rational protocols of treatment that can be shared by health-care professionals, taking into account important clinical, healthcare and therapeutic aspects, as well as potential sequelae and complications. The task force consists of 13 members of the SIUEC highly trained and experienced in thyroid surgery. The main topics concern clinical evaluation and preoperative workup, patient preparation for surgery, surgical treatment, non-surgical options, postoperative management, prevention and management of major complications, outpatient care and follow-up.

Extended Level IV Neck Dissection for Limited Prophylactic Clearance of Level V in Node-Positive Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma: a Homogenous Study Population

There is near consensus that prophylactic lateral neck dissection has no role in the management of differentiated thyroid cancer, but the extent of lateral neck dissection in differentiated thyroid cancer remains controversial, especially whether level V should be addressed or not. There is lot of heterogeneity in reporting of the management of level V in papillary thyroid cancer. We at our Institute address the lateral neck positive papillary thyroid cancer with selective neck dissection involving levels II-IV, performing extended level IV dissection with inclusion of the triangular area delineated by the sternocleidomastoid muscle, the clavicle, and the perpendicular line drawn to the clavicle from the point where the horizontal line at the level of cricoid cuts the posterior border of sternocleidomastoid muscle. Retrospective analysis of the departmental data set related to thyroidectomy with lateral neck dissection from 2013 to mid-2019 for papillary thyroid cancer, was carried out. Patients with recurrent papillary thyroid cancer were excluded as were patients with involvement of level V. Data related to the demography of patients, histological diagnosis, and postoperative complications were compiled and summarized. Note was made of the incidence of ipsilateral neck recurrence and the neck level involved with recurrence noted. Data was analyzed for fifty-two patients of non-recurrent papillary thyroid cancer who had undergone total thyroidectomy and lateral neck dissection involving levels II-IV, with extended dissection at level IV. It should be noted that none of the patients had clinical involvement of level V. Only two patients had lateral neck recurrence, both the recurrences were in level III, one on the ipsilateral side and the other on the contralateral side. Recurrence in the central compartment was noted in two patients, with one of these patients also having ipsilateral level III recurrence. One of the patients had distal metastasis to the lungs. Transient paresis of the unilateral vocal cords was noted in seven patients which got resolved within 2 months in all of them. Transient hypocalcemia was noted in four patients. Although our series has a small sample size with limited follow-up, it is one of the few studies in which prophylactic level V dissection has been studied in a homogenous study population of non-recurrent papillary thyroid cancer. Our study has shown that prophylactic dissection of level V may have a limited role, but further large multi-institutional studies need to be carried out to come up with a definite answer.

Guidelines from the Brazilian society of surgical oncology regarding indications and technical aspects of neck dissection in papillary, follicular, and medullary thyroid cancers

Objective

The purpose of these guidelines is to provide specific recommendations for the surgical treatment of neck metastases in patients with papillary, follicular, and medullary thyroid carcinomas.

Materials and methods

Recommendations were developed based on research of scientific articles (preferentially meta-analyses) and guidelines issued by international medical specialty societies. The American College of Physicians' Guideline Grading System was used to determine the levels of evidence and grades of recommendations. The following questions were answered: A) Is elective neck dissection indicated in the treatment of papillary, follicular, and medullary thyroid carcinoma? B) When should central, lateral, and modified radical neck dissection be performed? C) Could molecular tests guide the extent of the neck dissection?

Results and conclusion

Recommendation 1: Elective central neck dissection is not indicated in patients with cN0 well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma or in those with noninvasive T1 and T2 tumors but may be considered in T3-T4 tumors or in the presence of metastases in the lateral neck compartments. Recommendation 2: Elective central neck dissection is recommended in medullary thyroid carcinoma. Recommendation 3: Selective neck dissection of levels II-V should be indicated to treat neck metastases in papillary thyroid cancer, an approach that decreases the risk of recurrence and mortality. Recommendation 4: Compartmental neck dissection is indicated in the treatment of lymph node recurrence after elective or therapeutic neck dissection; "berry node picking" is not recommended. Recommendation 5: There are currently no recommendations regarding the use of molecular tests in guiding the extent of neck dissection in thyroid cancer.

Lymph node ratio in lateral neck is an independent risk factor for recurrence-free survival in papillary thyroid cancer patients with positive lymph nodes

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of the lymph node ratio on prognosis in papillary thyroid cancer patients with lymph node metastasis.

METHODS

Data from papillary thyroid cancer patients with positive nodes who were initially treated at our institution during 2015-2016 were analysed. Univariate and multivariate Cox proportional hazard models were adopted to predict prognostic factors. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was used to find the best cut-off value of the lymph node ratio (LNR). Kaplan-Meier curves were used to show the relationship between the LNR in the lateral neck and recurrence-free survival.

RESULTS

The median follow-up time was 64.6 months, and recurrence occurred in 16 of 662 patients (2.27%). Univariate analysis showed that male sex, primary tumour size (&gt;17 mm), visible extrathyroidal extension, LNR in the central neck (&gt;0.5), LNR in the lateral neck (&gt;0.10), and visible extranodal extension were significantly correlated with recurrence-free survival (RFS) (p &lt; 0.05). Multivariate analysis using the Cox proportional hazards model showed that the LNR in the lateral neck was an independent risk factor for RFS (p = 0.039; HR 14.76).

CONCLUSION

The LNR in the lateral neck was an independent risk factor for recurrence-free survival. For patients with a high lymph node ratio in the lateral neck, more frequent follow-up might be needed.

Risk factors for level V metastasis in patients with N1b papillary thyroid cancer

BACKGROUND

Papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) is the most common type of thyroid cancer, and its incidence has increased. Lateral lymph node metastasis (LLNM) implies a worse prognosis than central lymph node metastasis, with a higher recurrence rate and decreased disease-free survival. The 2015 American Thyroid Association guidelines recommend compartmental node dissection in patients with LLNM to reduce the risk of recurrence and mortality. The purpose of this study was to identify the risk factors for level V lymph node (LN) metastasis in patients with N1b papillary thyroid cancer (PTC).

METHODS

A total of 110 consecutive patients who underwent total thyroidectomy with lateral neck dissection for PTC between April 2016 and April 2022 were retrospectively enrolled. Based on level V metastasis, 94 patients were divided into two groups, and their clinicopathological characteristics were compared. Univariable analysis were used to assess the factors associated with level V metastasis. Spearman correlation analysis were used to assess the correlation between tumors and LN. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was used to determine the optimal cutoff value for the number of metastatic LNs at each level for level V metastasis.

RESULTS

The number of metastatic LNs and lymph node ratio (LNR) in level II were significantly associated with level V metastasis (P = 0.011 and 0.001, respectively). The number of metastatic LNs in level II and those in the total number of levels correlated with the number of metastatic LNs in level V (rho = 0.331, 0.325, and P = 0.001, 0.001, respectively). The cutoff value for the number of metastatic LNs in level II was defined as 2.5 (area under the curve = 0.757, sensitivity = 50%, specificity = 82.5%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.626-0.889, P = 0.002). Simultaneous 3-level metastasis (level II, III, and IV) and 3-level with ≥ 2.5 metastatic LNs in level II were significantly associated with level V metastasis (P = 0.003 and 0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

The number of metastatic LNs and LNR in level II, simultaneous 3-level metastasis (level II, III, and IV), and 3-level with ≥ 2.5 metastatic LNs in level II were significantly associated with level V metastasis. (P = 0.011, 0.001, 0.003, and 0.002, respectively). In the future, larger-scale multi-institutional studies were needed to find out predictors for level V metastasis.

Analysis of factors influencing cervical lymph node metastasis of papillary thyroid carcinoma at each lateral level

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the clinicopathological characteristics of patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) and its influence on the distribution of lymph node metastasis at each lateral level of the neck to guide precise treatment of the lateral area.

METHODS

The clinicopathological data of patients with PTC initially diagnosed and treated at our hospital from February 2014 to September 2021 were collected; the metastatic status of each lateral level was recorded, and correlations were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 203 patients were enrolled in this study. There were 67 males and 136 females, with an average age of 41.1 years. In the lateral cervical area, lymph node metastasis was found at level IIa in 81 patients (39.9%); level III, 171 patients (84.2%); level IV, 122 patients (60%); and level Vb, 18 patients (8.9%). Correlation analysis showed that age (r = 0.198, P < 0.01) and sex (r = 0.196, P < 0.01) were weakly correlated with the number of positive lymph nodes in the central region. The tumor size (r = 0.164, P < 0.05) was weakly correlated with lymph node metastasis at level IV. The presence of multiple tumor foci was weakly correlated with lymph node metastasis at level IIa (r = 0.163, P < 0.05) and Vb (r = 0.143, P < 0.05). The tumor location (r = - 0.168, P < 0.05) was weakly correlated with lymph node metastasis at level III. The number of positive lymph nodes in the central region (r = 0.189, P < 0.01) was weakly correlated with lymph node metastasis at level IV. Binary logistic regression analysis showed that the risk of metastasis of multifocal tumors was higher than that of unifocal tumors by 1.958 times at level IIa (P = 0.021, OR = 1.958) and 2.929 times at level Vb (P = 0.049, OR = 2.929). The higher the tumor was located, the higher the risk of metastasis at level III (P = 0.014, OR = 0.563). Every additional positive lymph node in the central region increased the risk of metastasis at level IV by 1.126 times (P = 0.009, OR = 1.126).

CONCLUSIONS

For patients with pathological evidence of lateral metastasis, standard dissection of level IIa through Vb is recommended; selective dissection requires careful consideration. Patients with multifocal tumors have a high risk of metastasis at levels IIa and Vb, which requires special attention during the operation.

Role and Extent of Neck Dissection for Neck Lymph Node Metastases in Differentiated Thyroid Cancers

Differentiated thyroid cancers (DTC) consist of 95% of thyroid tumors and include papillary thyroid cancer (PTC), follicular thyroid cancer (FTC), and Hurthle cell thyroid cancer (HTC). Rates of lymph node metastases are different depending on histologic subtypes and <5% in FTC and between 5% and 13% in HTC. Lymph node metastasis is more frequent in PTC and while rate of clinical metastasis can be seen approximately 30% rate of routine micrometastasis can be seen up to 80%. Lymph node metastasis of DTC mostly develops first in the Level VI lymph nodes at the central compartment starting from the ipsilateral paratracheal lymph nodes and then spreading to the contralateral paratracheal lymph nodes. Spread to the Level VII is mostly after Level VI invasion. Subsequent spread is to the lateral neck compartments of Levels IV, III, IIA, and VB and sometimes to the Levels IIB and VA. Occasionally skip metastasis to the lateral neck compartments develop without spreading to the central compartments and this situation is more frequent in upper pole tumors. Although application of prophylactic central neck dissection (pCND) in DTC increases the rate of complication, due to its unclear effects on oncologic results and quality of life, the interest to the pCND is decreasing and debate on its surgical extent is increasing. pCND is not essential in DTC and characteristics of patient and tumor and experience of surgeon should be considered when deciding for pCND. Due to lower complication rate of one sided pCND compared to bilateral central neck dissection (CND), low possibility of contralateral central neck metastasis and low risk of recurrence, application of one-sided CND is logical. Although therapeutic CND (tCND) is the standart treatment when there is a clinically involved lymph node, extent of dissection is a matter of debate. A case-based decision for the extent of tCND can be made by considering patient and tumor characteristics and experience of the surgeon. Due to the higher complication risk of bilateral CND, unilateral tCND can be performed if there is no suspicious lymph node on the contralateral side and bilateral tCND can be applied when there is a suspicion for metastasis only on the contralateral side or there are features for risk of metastasis to the contralateral side. In patients with clinical central metastasis owing to intra-operative pathology results by frozen section procedure are compatible with post-operative pathology results, when there is a suspicion for contralateral metastasis, a decision for one- or two-sided dissection can be made using frozen section procedure. In DTC, it can be stated that there is a consensus in the literature about not performing prophylactic lateral neck dissection (LND), but performing therapeutic LND (tLND). In addition, there is a debate on the extent of tLND. In a meta-analysis about lateral metastasis, the rates of metastasis to the Levels IIA, IIB, III, IV, VA, and VB were 53.1%, 15.5%, 70.5%, 66.3%, 7.9%, and 21.5%, respectively. Ultrasonography (USG) is an effective procedure for detection of cervical nodal metastasis on lateral compartment. Pre-operative imaging with USG and/or combination with the fine needle aspiration biopsy (cytology/molecular test/Thyroglobulin test) can allow pre-operative detection and verification of lateral lymph node metastasis. Extent of tLND can be determined to minimize morbidity considering pre-operative USG findings, pre-operative tumor and clinical features of lateral metastasis. Especially in the presence of limited lateral metastases, limited selective LND such as Levels III, IV or Levels IIA, III, IV can be applied according to the patient. Levels IIB and VB should be added to the dissection in the presence of metastases in these regions. In cases that increase the risk of Level IIB involvement, such as presence of metastasis at Level IIA, extranodal tumor involvement, presence of multifocal tumor, and in cases that increase the risk of Level VB involvement such as macroscopic extranodal spread, and simultaneous metastases at Levels II, III, IV; Levels IIB and VB can be added to dissection material. Levels I and VA should be added to the dissection in the presence of clinically detected metastases.

Surgeon‐performed fine‐needle aspiration for lymph nodes behind the big cervical vessels in papillary thyroid cancer

Objective

This study aimed to describe the technique of surgeon‐performed ultrasound (US)‐guided fine‐needle aspiration (FNA) of cervical retrovascular lymph nodes in papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) patients and analyze its efficacy.

Methods

This study included consecutive patients with retrovascular suspicious lymph nodes who had FNA performed by surgeons. The technique and efficacy of four different puncture routes were assessed.

Results

A total of 102 lymph node FNAs were performed on 100 patients. None yield insufficient aspiration, while 2% of FNA cytology result in an indeterminate diagnosis. No severe complication was observed. Cytologic testing plus thyroglobulin washout indicated sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value in diagnosing nodal metastasis were 99%, 93%, 97%, and 97%, respectively. There was no significant difference in the test accuracy of FNA through different routes.

Conclusions

In PTC patients, suspicious lymph nodes behind the big cervical vessels should not be considered a contraindication to FNA. They can be diagnosed safely and accurately using appropriate puncture routes.

Level of evidence: 4.

Indications of Superselective Neck Dissection in Patients With Lateral Node Metastasis of Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

The extent of neck dissection in papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) patients with lateral neck metastasis is controversial. This work aims to screen the patients suitable for superselective neck dissections including only levels III-IV.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective observational cohort study.

SETTING

The study was conducted in a high-volume tertiary care setting.

METHODS

A total of 134 consecutive previously untreated PTC patients with lateral neck metastases and subjected to 154 therapeutic lateral neck dissections (including levels II, III, IV, and VB) between June 2018 and March 2021 were enrolled. Fine-needle aspiration was performed preoperatively at each suspicious neck level. Clinical predictors were analyzed for occult lymph node metastases at levels II and VB.

RESULTS

As a result, 44.8% and 5.8% of neck specimens exhibited metastatic lymph nodes at levels II and VB. In addition, univariate and multivariate analyses showed that the primary tumor in the ipsilateral thyroid upper lobe (P = .016, odds ratio = 3.528) and clinically multiple metastatic lymph nodes in level III-IV (P = .005, odds ratio = 6.414) were independent predictive factors for occult level II metastases. All 3 (1.9%) occult metastases at level VB were found in necks with preoperative multiple lymph node metastases.

CONCLUSIONS

A superselective lateral neck dissection including levels III to IV may be considered in patients with PTC when the preoperative evaluation identifies a single lymph node metastasis located at levels III to IV and the primary tumor is not in the upper lobe of the ipsilateral thyroid.

Dynamic Nomogram for Predicting Lateral Cervical Lymph Node Metastasis in Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

To establish a dynamic nomogram based on preoperative clinical data for prediction of lateral lymph node metastasis (LLNM) of papillary thyroid carcinoma.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective study.

SETTING

The Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University.

METHODS

The data of 477 patients from 2 centers formed the training group and validation group and were retrospectively reviewed. Preoperative clinical factors influencing LLNM were identified by univariable and multivariable analysis and were to construct a predictive dynamic nomogram for LLNM. Receiver operating characteristic analysis and calibration curves were used to evaluate the predictive power of the nomogram.

RESULTS

The following were identified as independent risk factors for LLNM: male sex (odds ratio [OR] = 4.6, P = .04), tumor size ≥10.5 mm (OR = 7.9, P = .008), thyroid nodules (OR = 6.1, P = .013), irregular tumor shape (OR = 24.6, P = .001), rich lymph node vascularity (OR = 9.7, P = .004), and lymph node location. The dynamic nomogram constructed with these factors is available at https://zxh1119.shinyapps.io/DynNomapp/. The nomogram showed good performance, with an area under the curve of 0.956 (95% CI, 0.925-0.986), a sensitivity of 0.87, and a specificity of 0.91, if high-risk patients were defined as those with a predicted probability ≥0.3 or total score ≥200. The nomogram performed well in the external validation cohort (area under the curve, 0.915; 95% CI, 0.862-0.967).

CONCLUSIONS

The dynamic nomogram for preoperative prediction of LLNM in papillary thyroid carcinoma can help surgeons identify high-risk patients and develop individualized treatment plans.

Lateral Neck Dissection for Well-Differentiated Thyroid Carcinoma: Is Prophylactic Level V Neck Dissection Necessary? A Retrospective Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

The presence of clinically detectable papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) metastases in the lateral neck is an indication for neck dissection (ND) and thyroidectomy. Although there is a consensus regarding the importance of therapeutic selective ND of involved levels II to IV in patients with clinically evident locoregional metastatic disease, the prognostic benefit of level V prophylactic ND remains debatable.

METHODS

All patients who underwent thyroidectomy with ND for metastatic PTC between 2006 and 2019 were included in a single-institution retrospective study. Preoperative characteristics at initial presentation, imaging workup, intraoperative findings, and the final histopathological reports were retrieved from the institutional database.

RESULTS

A total of 189 patients with locally advanced PTC were identified, of whom 22 (11.6%) patients underwent therapeutic selective ND at levels II to IV together with level V dissection due to clinical involvement. Comparison of the patients who were operated on level V to those who were not revealed no significant difference. The disease recurrence rate was 20.1% throughout an average follow-up of 5.1±3.1 years. No significant differences in recurrence rate were found between patients who underwent and those who did not undergo level V ND (22.7% vs 19.8%, P = .648). No recurrence at resected level V was detected during follow-up, while recurrence at level V was found in 4 (2.1%) patients who did not undergo level V dissection. Evidence of macroscopic and microscopic extrathyroidal extension was significant predictors of disease recurrence risk.

CONCLUSION

There were no significant associations between level V dissection and risk for recurrence. Recurrence at level V was rare (4/189 patients, 2.1%). Our study's findings suggest a low prophylactic benefit of an elective level V ND. Elective level V ND should not be done routinely when lateral ND is indicated but should rather be considered after careful evaluation in high-risk patients.

Predictors of thyroglobulin in the lymph nodes recurrence of papillary thyroid carcinoma undergoing total thyroidectomy

BACKGROUND

To investigate the association between postoperative lymph nodes (LNs) recurrence and distinct serum thyroglobulin (Tg) levels in patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC).

METHODS

This study included PTC patients who underwent total thyroidectomy (TT) with at least central neck dissection and then re-operated due to recurrence of LNs between January 2013 and June 2018. These patients were grouped by negative or positive serum Tg levels according to the American Thyroid Association guidelines.

RESULTS

Of the 60 included patients, 49 underwent radioactive iodine (RAI) treatment. Maximum unstimulated Tg (uTg) ≥ 0.2 ng/mL were associated with larger diameter of recurrent LNs (P = 0.027), and higher rate of metastatic LNs (P < 0.001). Serum-stimulated Tg (off-Tg) ≥ 1 ng/mL (P = 0.047) and unstimulated Tg (on-Tg) ≥ 0.2 ng/Ml (P = 0.013) were associated with larger diameter of recurrent LNs. Number of metastatic LNs ≥ 8 was an independent predictor for postoperative maximum uTg ≥ 0.2 ng/mL (OR = 8.767; 95% CI = 1.392-55.216; P = 0.021). Ratio of metastatic LNs ≥ 25% was an independent predictor for off-Tg ≥ 1 ng/mL (OR = 20.997; 95% CI = 1.649-267.384; P = 0.019).

CONCLUSION

Postoperative Tg-positive status was associated with larger size of recurrent LNs. Number of metastatic LNs ≥ 8 and ratio of metastatic LNs ≥ 25% were independent predicators for uTg-positive and off-Tg-positive status, respectively.

A Prediction Model for Contralateral Central Neck Lymph Node Metastases in Unilateral Papillary Thyroid Cancer

The health problems caused by the frequent relapse of papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) remain a worldwide concern since the morbidity rate of PTC ranks the highest among thyroid cancers. Residues from contralateral central lymph node metastases (con-CLNM) are the key reason for persistence or recurrence of unilateral papillary thyroid carcinoma (uni-PTC); however, the ability to assess the status of con-CLNM in uni-PTC patients is limited. To clarify the risk factors of con-CLNM, a total of 250 patients with uni-PTC who underwent total thyroidectomy and bilateral central lymph node dissection were recruited in this study. We compared the clinical, sonographic, and pathological characteristics of patients with con-CLNM to those without con-CLNM and established a nomogram for con-CLNM in uni-PTC. We found that male sex, without Hashimoto's thyroiditis, present capsular invasion, with ipsilateral lateral lymph node metastases, and the ratio of ipsilateral central lymph node metastases ≥0.16 were independent con-CLNM predictors of uni-PTC (ORs: 2.797, 0.430, 2.538, 2.202, and 26.588; 95% CIs: 1.182-6.617, 0.211-0.876, 1.223-5.267, 1.064-4.557, and 7.596-93.069, respectively). Additionally, a preoperative nomogram for the prediction of con-CLNM based on these risk factors showed good discrimination (C-index 0.881; 95% CI: 0.840-0.923; sensitivity 85.3%; specificity 76.0%) and good agreement via the calibration plot. Our study provided a way to quantitatively and accurately predict whether con-CLNM occurred in patients with uni-PTC, which may guide surgeons to evaluate the nodal status and perform tailored therapeutic central lymph node dissection.

MRI-based radiomics analysis to predict preoperative lymph node metastasis in papillary thyroid carcinoma

Background

The aim of the present study was to develop a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) radiomics model and evaluate its clinical value in predicting preoperative lymph node metastasis (LNM) in patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC).

Methods

Data of 129 patients with histopathologically confirmed PTC were retrospectively reviewed in our study (90 in training group and 39 in testing group). 395 radiomics features were extracted from T2 weighted imaging (T2WI), diffusion weighted imaging (DWI) and T1 weighted multiphase contrast enhancement imaging (T1C+) respectively. Minimum redundancy maximum relevance (mRMR) was used to eliminate irrelevant and redundant features and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO), to additionally select an optimized features' subset to construct the radiomics signature. Predictive performance was validated using receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) analysis, while decision curve analyses (DCA) were conducted to evaluate the clinical worth of the four models according to different sequences. A radiomics nomogram was built using multivariate logistic regression model. The nomogram's performance was assessed and validated in the training and validation cohorts, respectively.

Results

Seven key features were selected from T2WI, five from DWI, ten from T1C+ and seven from the combined images. The scores (Rad-scores) of patients with LNM were significantly higher than patients with non-LNM in both the training cohort and the validation cohort. The combined model performed better than the T2WI, DWI, and T1C+ models alone in both cohorts. In the training cohort, the area under the ROC (AUC) values of T2WI, DWI, T1C+ and combined features were 0.819, 0.826, 0.808, and 0.835, respectively; corresponding values in the validation cohort were 0.798, 0.798, 0.789, and 0.830. The clinical utility of the combined model was confirmed using the radiomics nomogram and DCA.

Conclusions

MRI radiomic model based on anatomical and functional MRI images could be used as a non-invasive biomarker to identify PTC patients at high risk of LNM, which could help to develop individualized treatment strategies in clinical practice.

Prediction of level V metastases in papillary thyroid microcarcinoma: a single center analysis

Background

The rate of level V metastases is significantly low and the necessity of routine level V dissection for papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PTMC) with clinically lateral lymph node metastasis (LNM) is still controversial.

Methods

This study enrolled 114 consecutive PTMC patients with clinically suspected lateral LNM (N1b) who underwent modified radical neck dissection (levels II to V) at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University from September 2016 to July 2019. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to investigate the predictive factors of level V metastasis. The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC), accuracy, specificity and sensitivity were used to determine the predictive value.

Results

The overall and occult rate of level V metastasis were 29.82% (34/114) and 7.02% (8/114), respectively. Univariate analysis showed that level V metastasis was significantly associated with gross extrathyroidal extension (ETE), level IV metastasis and 2-level simultaneous metastasis (all P<0.05). Gross ETE (OR =11.916, 95% CI, 1.404-102.19; P=0.023) and level IV metastasis (OR =8.497, 95% CI, 2.119-34.065; P =0.03) served as independent predictors of level V metastasis in N1b PTMC patients. The sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) of gross ETE and level IV metastasis in predicting the level V metastasis were 25.3% vs. 82.4%, 97.5% vs. 73.8%, 82.69% vs. 76.32%, 80% vs. 57.04% and 75% vs. 90.77%, respectively. The AUC of gross ETE was lower than level IV metastasis (0.605 vs. 0.781, P=0.041).

Conclusions

Routine level V dissection is necessary in N1b PTMC patients with level IV metastasis or gross ETE. Compared with gross ETE, level IV metastasis is superior in predicting level V metastasis.

Patterns and Predictors of Metastatic Spread to the Neck in Pediatric Thyroid Carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

Evaluate patterns and predictors of spread to the neck in pediatric metastatic differentiated thyroid carcinoma (DTC).

METHODS

Patients <18 years old undergoing thyroidectomy by a single surgeon from January 2015 to December 2019 were included. Neck sublevels were removed separately according to AJCC boundaries. Clinical outcomes included nerve injury, hypocalcemia, hematoma, and residual tumor.

RESULTS

Forty-eight children underwent thyroid surgery. Thirty (63%) were for malignancy, 27 (90%) of which were DTC. Nineteen (70%) patients with DTC underwent 24 neck dissections; 19 central plus lateral and 5 central alone. The female to male ratio increased from 1:1 to 3:1 with age. Two children with lateral neck involvement had sub-centimeter primaries. Patients requiring neck dissection were more likely to have 1) diffuse sclerosing or tall cell variant, 2) T3 or T4 disease, 3) genetic mutation, 4) lymphatic invasion, 5) extracapsular extension, 6) positive resection margin. Levels IIA (79%), III (89%), IV (84%), VI (100%) were most commonly involved. Levels IB (16%), IIB (16%), VB (16%) were also involved, often without involvement of adjacent levels. Permanent injuries included one unilateral recurrent laryngeal nerve, one mild marginal mandibular nerve and one mild accessory nerve. Hypocalcemia was highest following neck dissection for malignant disease. One patient was re-operated for a mediastinal node. Most patients with N1 disease received radioactive iodine. Most patients have no evidence or indeterminate disease on long-term follow-up.

CONCLUSION

Children with lateral nodal spread from DTC should be considered for neck dissection including Levels IB, IIA, IIB, III, IV, VB, bilateral VI.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

4 Laryngoscope, 131:E1002-E1009, 2021.

Prophylactic lymph node dissection in clinically N0 differentiated thyroid carcinoma: example of personalized treatment

Considering the 'differentiated thyroid carcinoma (DTC) epidemic', the indolent nature of DTC imposes a treatment paradigm shift toward elimination of recurrence. Lymph node metastases in cervical compartments, encountered in 20-90% of DTC, are the main culprit of recurrent disease, affecting 5-30% of patients. Personalized risk-stratified cervical prophylactic lymph node dissection (PLND) at initial thyroidectomy in DTC with no clinical, sonographic or intraoperative evidence of lymph node metastases (clinically N0) has been advocated, though not unanimously. The present review dissects the controversy over PLND. Weighing the benefit yielded from PLND up against the PLND-related morbidity is so far hampered by the inconsistent profit yielded by PLND and the challenging patient selection. Advances in tailoring PLND are anticipated to empower optimal patient care.

The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons Guidelines for the Definitive Surgical Management of Thyroid Disease in Adults

OBJECTIVE

To develop evidence-based recommendations for safe, effective, and appropriate thyroidectomy.

BACKGROUND

Surgical management of thyroid disease has evolved considerably over several decades leading to variability in rendered care. Over 100,000 thyroid operations are performed annually in the US.

METHODS

The medical literature from 1/1/1985 to 11/9/2018 was reviewed by a panel of 19 experts in thyroid disorders representing multiple disciplines. The authors used the best available evidence to construct surgical management recommendations. Levels of evidence were determined using the American College of Physicians grading system, and management recommendations were discussed to consensus. Members of the American Association of Endocrine Surgeons reviewed and commented on preliminary drafts of the content.

RESULTS

These clinical guidelines analyze the indications for thyroidectomy as well as its definitions, technique, morbidity, and outcomes. Specific topics include Pathogenesis and Epidemiology, Initial Evaluation, Imaging, Fine Needle Aspiration Biopsy Diagnosis, Molecular Testing, Indications, Extent and Outcomes of Surgery, Preoperative Care, Initial Thyroidectomy, Perioperative Tissue Diagnosis, Nodal Dissection, Concurrent Parathyroidectomy, Hyperthyroid Conditions, Goiter, Adjuncts and Approaches to Thyroidectomy, Laryngology, Familial Thyroid Cancer, Postoperative Care and Complications, Cancer Management, and Reoperation.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence-based guidelines were created to assist clinicians in the optimal surgical management of thyroid disease.

Clinicopathologic characteristics and outcomes of papillary thyroid carcinoma in younger patients

In the 7th edition of AJCC staging system, cervical lymph node metastases (LNM) in papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) is considered as a poorer prognostic indicator only in patients aged 45 years or older, but as a low-risk factor in patients younger than 45 years. The objective of this study is to investigate the influence of cervical LNM on prognostic outcomes of young patients (<45 years' old) with PTC.We carried out a retrospective analysis of 1896 PTC patients younger than 45 years' old at diagnosis, who were firstly treated in our department between January 2005 and December 2014. Clinicopathologic features, recurrences, disease-free survival (DFS) were recorded and analyzed.A total of 1896 consecutive patients were identified, comprising of 426 males and 1470 females after a median follow-up period of 40 months (3-129 months) from initial surgery to disease recurrence or to the end of follow-up. The rate of recurrence was 2.16% (n = 41). The DFS rates for a 1-year, 3-year, or 5-year team were 99.1%, 97.8%, or 97.4%, respectively. Univariate analysis showed that diagnosed age ≤30 years, tumor size >1.0 cm, extrathyroidal extension, multifocal lesions, lesions in bilateral lobes, central neck LNM, and lateral neck LNM were associated with a worse DFS. Multivariate analysis showed that only central neck LNM and lateral neck LNM were significant independent prognostic factors for DFS (P < .001). For patients with papillary thyroid microcarcinoma, cervical LNM were also identified as independent risk factors for DFS (P < .001).LNM have prognostic significance for DFS in PTC patients younger than 45 years. It indicated that PTC patients (<45 years old) with LNM, especially lateral neck LNM, were understaged by the 7th edition of AJCC staging system. Thus, radical resection of primary tumor and metastatic lymph nodes, frequent follow-up, and strict TSH suppression should be taken for young patients with PTC.

Role of Ca²⁺ in Inhibiting Ischemia-Induced Apoptosis of Parathyroid Gland Cells in New Zealand White Rabbits

BACKGROUND Hypoparathyroidism is a common complication after thyroidectomy. Calcium supplementation can relieve these symptoms, but it is not clear whether it can protect the parathyroid glands. This study aimed to verify whether Ca²⁺ inhibits the apoptosis of parathyroid cells following ischemic injury. MATERIAL AND METHODS A rabbit model of parathyroid gland ischemic injury was established. The blood calcium concentrations were measured by colorimetry. The parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The parathyroid tissues were observed by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining and the TdT-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay. Western blotting was used to quantify the levels of the following proteins: caspase-3 and p38 MAP Kinase (p38 MAPK). RESULTS This study demonstrates that apoptosis can be a part of the pathological changes associated with parathyroid ischemic injury. Calcium supplementation inhibited the apoptosis of parathyroid cells following ischemic injury. There were no significant differences among the serum calcium levels from the Sham operation (Sham), the Control group (CG), or the Calcium supplementation group (CSG) after 24 h, 72 h, and 168 h of treatment. PTH levels in the CG were significantly higher than in the CSG at 24 h and 72 h after treatments. The apoptosis rate of parathyroid cells from rabbits in the CSG was significantly lower than that of those from rabbits in the CG at 24 h and 72 h after the treatment. Calcium supplementation inhibited p38 MAPK and caspase-3 expression. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates that calcium supplementation inhibited the apoptosis of parathyroid cells following ischemic injury.

Thyroid Surgery: Whose Domain Is It?

In the United States of America (US), most departments of otorhinolaryngology head and neck surgery have been performing thyroid surgery for many years. In contrast to the US, thyroid surgery is still dominated by general surgeons in most European countries. In numerous university centers, there continues to be friction regarding thyroid surgery. The focus of this editorial is to demonstrate that there is objective data in the literature to suggest that otorhinolaryngologists with appropriate training in head and neck surgery are well suited to perform the entire spectrum of thyroid surgery. The question of who is qualified to perform thyroid surgery is not determined by the basic specialty certification of the surgeon—general or otolaryngology; rather it depends on the training, skill and experience in surgery of the neck, of post-surgical and post-irradiated necks, and of neighboring structures.

Preoperative Ultrasonographic Staging of Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma With the Eighth American Joint Committee on Cancer Tumor-Node-Metastasis Staging System

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the performance of preoperative ultrasonography (US) in the staging of papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) according to the eighth AJCC TNM classification system, to determine the effect of the preoperative US staging in the management of PTC.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Preoperative US was performed by 2 highly trained sonographers in 665 consecutive patients with PTC, and the T and N categories were determined preoperatively. The accuracy of preoperative US in clinical staging was evaluated based on the histopathological specimens according to the eighth AJCC TNM classification. Further analysis was performed to identify the high-risk factors of N1b stage.

RESULTS

Overall accuracy of preoperative US for T stage was 92.5% (615/665). The accuracy of sonographic evaluation for T was high except for the T4a. Overall accuracy of preoperative US for N stage was 59% (426/655). The accuracies of sonographic evaluation for N0, N1a, and N1b were 81.8% (274/335), 33.3% (70/250), and 87.5% (70/80), respectively. Of 250 N1a patients, 164 (65.6%) were underestimated by US. Univariate and multivariate analyses showed that larger tumor diameter, multifocality, and higher T stage significantly increase the risk of N1b stage (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Preoperative US was useful for the evaluation in staging of PTC, but some limitations still existed. For higher-risk patients of N1b (larger tumor size, multifocality, and higher T stage), preoperative US examination for lateral neck region should be further emphasized, and prophylactic lateral nodal dissection should be determined based on both preoperative imaging results and intraoperative evaluation.

Cystic form of cervical lymphadenopathy. Guidelines of the French Society of Otorhinolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery (SFORL). Part 1: Diagnostic procedures for lymphadenopathy in case of cervical mass with cystic aspect

OBJECTIVES

The authors present the guidelines of the French Society of Otorhinolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery Society on diagnostic procedures for lymphadenopathy in case of a cervical mass with cystic aspect.

METHODS

A multidisciplinary work-group was entrusted with a review of the scientific literature on the topic. Guidelines were drawn up, then read over by an editorial group independent of the work-group, and the final version was drawn up. Guidelines were graded as A, B, C or expert opinion, by decreasing level of evidence.

RESULTS

In adults presenting a cystic cervical mass, it is recommended to suspect cervical lymphadenopathy: in order of decreasing frequency, cystic metastasis of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, of undifferentiated nasopharyngeal carcinoma, and of thyroid papillary carcinoma (Grade C). On discovery of a cystic cervical mass on ultrasound, architectural elements indicating a lymph node and a thyroid nodule with signs of malignancy should be screened for, especially if the mass is located in levels III, IV or VI (Grade A). Malignant lymphadenopathy should be suspected in case of cervical mass with cystic component on CT (Grade B), but benign or malignant status cannot be diagnosed only on radiological data (CT or MRI) (Grade A), and 18-FDG PET-CT should be performed, particularly in case of inconclusive ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration biopsy (Grade C).

Interobserver Variability in the Histopathologic Assessment of Extrathyroidal Extension of Well Differentiated Thyroid Carcinoma Supports the New American Joint Committee on Cancer Eighth Edition Criteria for Tumor Staging

Background: Extrathyroidal extension (ETE) by papillary and follicular thyroid carcinoma can be associated with increased risk of tumor recurrence and mortality. In the seventh edition of its Cancer Staging Manual, the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) defined minimal ETE as the involvement of skeletal muscle (i.e., strap muscles) or perithyroidal soft tissue. The eighth edition of the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual has changed the criteria so that only grossly evident (macroscopic) ETE involving strap muscles (not microscopic ETE involving perithyroidal soft tissue) affects tumor staging. Summary: Concordance of identifying microscopic ETE (as well as extranodal extension by carcinoma metastatic to lymph nodes) was previously evaluated among 11 expert endocrine pathologists. The overall agreement rate was slight when rendering a diagnosis of ETE. Concordance was highest when pathologists assessed the spatial relationship of carcinoma to skeletal muscle. This article discusses the significance of these findings. It also reviews relevant anatomic and developmental considerations related to the boundaries of the thyroid. Conclusions: The results of the concordance study provide additional rationale supporting stringent criteria for diagnosing ETE, as proposed by the eighth edition of the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. It is expected that these rigid morphologic criteria will potentially reduce interobserver variability and enhance consistency in the diagnosis and staging of thyroid carcinoma.

LATERAL NECK DISSECTION FOR AGGRESSIVE VARIANTS OF WELL-DIFFERENTIATED THYROID CANCER

Objective: Well-differentiated thyroid cancer (WDTC) is characterized by favorable disease course and excellent survival. However, some histologic subtypes, known as aggressive histologic variants (AHVs), present a more aggressive behavior than conventional WDTC. The aim of this study was to evaluate the pattern of nodal involvement and factors influencing prognosis in N1b patients with AHVs. Methods: A multicentric retrospective analysis of patients who underwent therapeutic lateral neck dissection (ND) for WDTC between 1994 and 2015 was accomplished. AHVs included the following subtypes: tall cell, Hürtle cell, diffuse sclerosing, and poorly differentiated papillary thyroid cancer. Results: The study included a total of 352 N1b patients, 40 (11.4%) of whom had AHVs. AHVs present a similar distribution of positive nodes if compared with conventional WDTC. In AHV patients, 5-year overall survival (OS), disease-specific survival (DSS), locoregional control, and metastasis-free survival were 82.2%, 93.6%, 80.3%, and 87.3%, respectively. Advanced age (>55 years) was the only significant factor affecting survival (OS, P<.001; DSS, P = .011) in this group. In the AHV group, there were 9 (22.5%) recurrences; patients with regional recurrence and without distant metastases were effectively treated by surgery. Conclusion: The distribution of positive lymph nodes in case of AHVs is similar to that of conventional WDTC, with only level V at a relatively greater risk of harboring metastases in the former group. Survival outcomes in N1b patients with AHVs remain optimal. Total thyroidectomy, ND, and adjuvant radioiodine administration have been demonstrated to be effective treatments in the setting of AHVs. Abbreviations: AHV = aggressive histologic variant; DOD = died of disease; DSS = disease-specific survival; DSV = diffuse sclerosing variant; ETE = extrathyroidal extension; HCC = Hürthle cell carcinoma; LRC = locoregional control; LVI = lymphovascular invasion; MFS = metastasis-free survival; ND = neck dissection; NED = no evidence of disease; OS = overall survival; PDA = poorly differentiated areas; PTC = papillary thyroid carcinoma; RAI = radioiodine therapy; TCV = tall cell variant; WDTC = well-differentiated thyroid cancer.

Individual prediction of lateral neck metastasis risk in patients with unifocal papillary thyroid carcinoma

INTRODUCTION

Much controversy exists over whether to perform lateral neck dissection (LND) on patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC). This study aimed to build predictive nomograms that could individually estimate lateral neck metastasis (LNM) risk and help determine follow up intensity.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Unifocal PTC patients who underwent LND between April 2012 and August 2014 were identified. Clinical and pathological variables were retrospectively evaluated using univariate and stepwise multivariate logistic regression analysis. Variables that had statistical significance in final multivariate logistic models were chosen to build nomograms, which were further corrected using the bootstrap resampling method.

RESULTS

In all, 505 PTC patients were eligible for analysis. Among these, 178 patients (35.2%) had lateral neck metastasis. Two nomograms were generated: nomogram (c) and nomogram (c + p). Nomogram (c) incorporated four clinical variables: age, tumor size, tumor site, and extrathyroidal extension (ETE). It had a good discriminative ability, with a C-index of 0.79 (bootstrap-corrected, 0.78). Nomogram (c + p) incorporated two clinical variables and two pathological variables: tumor size, tumor site, extranodal extension (ENE), and number of positive nodes in the central compartment. Nomogram (c + p) showed an excellent discriminative ability, with a C-index of 0.86 (bootstrap-corrected, 0.85).

CONCLUSION

Two predictive nomograms were generated. Nomogram (c) is a clinical model, whereas nomogram (c + p) is a clinicopathological model. Each nomogram incorporates only four variables and can give an accurate estimate of LNM risk in unifocal PTC patients, which may assist clinicians in patient counseling and decision making regarding LND.

Nomogram for predicting level V lymph node metastases in papillary thyroid carcinoma with clinically lateral lymph node metastases: A large retrospective cohort study of 1037 patients from FDUSCC

Objective: Extensive lateral neck dissection (LND), especially routine level V dissection, may potentially increase morbidity and have no significant benefit to survival in patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC). Our study aimed to determine the pattern and risk factors for level V lymph node metastasis (LNM) and to develop an assessment model based on a nomogram for predicting whether level V dissection is necessary.

Methods: A total of 1037 PTC patients with clinically suspected LNM (N1b) who underwent total thyroidectomy (TT) with central LND and unilateral LND from 2011 to 2015 were retrospectively retrieved. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to examine risk factors associated with level V metastasis. A nomogram for predicting level V metastasis was established and internally validated.

Results: The overall rate of level V metastasis was 21.3% (221/1037). Unilateral central LNM (CLNM), level II/III/IV metastasis, extra nodal extension (ENE) and lymph node (LN) size ≥2 cm were found to be independent predictive factors for level V metastasis (P<0.05). In the nomogram, ENE was confirmed as the largest contributor to scores, followed by LN size, unilateral CLNM and level IV/III/II metastasis. The discrimination of the prediction model was 0.738 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.703-0.773, P<0.001).

Conclusions: The rate of level V metastasis in N1b PTC patients was apparently lower than that of other levels. With the help of our nomogram, a modified lateral neck dissection encompassing levels II-V and a strictly postoperative evaluation may be indicated when the patient has a high score.

Standards and Definitions in Neck Dissections of Differentiated Thyroid Cancer

Papillary and follicular thyroid carcinomas arising from the follicular epithelial cells and forming differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) consist of >95% of thyroid cancers. Lymph node metastasis to the neck is common in DTC, especially in papillary thyroid cancer. The removal of only the metastatic lymph nodes (berry picking) does not help to achieve a potential positive contribution to the survival and recurrence of lymph node dissection in the DTC. Thus, systematic dissection of the cervical lymph nodes is needed. Today, according to the widely accepted and commonly used definitions and lymph node staging, the deep lymph nodes of the lateral side of the neck are divided into five regions. Based on the fact that some groups have biologically independent regions, Groups I, II, and V are divided into the A and B subgroups. The central region lymph nodes contain VI and VII region lymph nodes, which consist of the prelaryngeal, pretracheal, and right and left paratracheal lymph node groups. Radical neck dissection (RND) is accepted as the standard basic procedure in defining neck dissections. In this method, in addition to all the regions of the Groups I-V lymph nodes at one side, the ipsilateral spinal accessory nerve, internal jugular vein, and sternocleidomastoid muscle are removed. Sparing of one or more of the routinely removed non-lymphatic structures in the RND is called modified RND (MRND), whereas the preservation of one or more of the routinely removed lymph node groups in the RND is termed as selective neck dissection (SND). In difference, the procedure with an addition of a lymph node and/or non-lymphatic structures to routinely removed neck structures in RND is called extended RND. Generally, involving one or more regions of SND are applied for DTC. The removal of the paratracheal, prelaryngeal, and pretracheal lymph node groups at one side is termed as ipsilateral central dissection, whereas the removal of the bilateral paratracheal lymph node groups, in other words, the excision of four lymph node groups in the central region (Groups VI and VII), is defined as bilateral central dissection. In conclusion, bilateral central neck dissection (CND) is the SND in which the regions of VI and VII are removed. In the DTC, CND is prophylactically and therapeutically applied, whereas lateral neck dissection is performed only therapeutically in the presence of clinical metastasis (N1b) in the lateral neck region. Debates on the extent of SNDs to be made in the central and lateral neck regions are still ongoing. Central dissection should be made at least unilaterally. In the lateral side of the neck, SNDs can be applied in different combinations in which at least one region from Groups I to V is removed. The main variables that determine the extent of SND in the central and lateral regions in DTC are the complication rates, the effect of the procedure, and its effect on prognosis and recurrence.

Modification of the eight-edition tumor-node-metastasis staging system with N1b for papillary thyroid carcinoma: A multi-institutional cohort study

OBJECTIVES

Based on the tumor-node-metastasis staging system, eighth edition (TNM-8), N1b is no longer used as a variable to determine final stage in papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC). We aimed to evaluate the predictability of a simple modification of the TNM staging with N1b classification in a large multicenter thyroid cancer cohort.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study included 7717 patients with PTC who underwent thyroid surgery between 1996 and 2005 from six tertiary hospitals. We classified patients with stage II into stage IIA and IIB with modified-TNM: older patients with N1b disease were classified as stage IIB, while remaining patients were classified as stage IIA.

RESULTS

The mean age was 46.2 years, and 24% were aged ≥55 years. In older patients, the 10-year disease-specific survival (DSS) rate of N1b disease (86.3%) was approximately 10% lower than that of N1a disease, and patients with N1b had significantly poorer DSS than those with N1a (HR = 3.3, p < 0.001). When the modified-TNM was applied, DSS curves between stage groups significantly differed (p < 0.001), and the relative risk of DSS in stage IIB patients was 2.3 times higher than in stage IIA patients (p < 0.001). The proportion of variation explained value of the modified-TNM was 4.9% and that of the TNM-8 was 4.7%.

CONCLUSION

This multicenter study reveals that the presence of lateral lymph node metastasis affects disease mortality in PTC, especially in older patients. The sub-classification of stage II in older patients improves DSS predictability. This simple modification of TNM-8 provides better prognostic information for patients with PTC.

Level V Clearance in Neck Dissection for Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma: A Need for Homogeneous Studies

Introduction  Papillary thyroid carcinoma has a very high rate of lateral neck node metastases, and there is almost unanimity concerning the fact that some sort of formal neck dissection must be performed to address the clinical neck disease in these cases. Although there is an agreement that levels II to IV need to be cleared in these patients, the clearance of level V is debatable.

Objectives  We herein have tried to analyze various papers that have documented a structured approach to neck dissection in these patients. Moreover, we have also tried to consider this issue through various aspects, like spinal accessory nerve injury and the impact of neck recurrence on survival.

Data Synthesis  The PubMed, Medline, Google Scholar, Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER), and Ovid databases were searched for studies written in English that focused on lateral neck dissection (levels II–IV or II–V) for papillary thyroid carcinoma. Case reports with 10 patients or less were excluded.

Conclusions  The current evidence is equivocal whether to clear level V or not, and the studies published on this issue are very heterogeneous. Level II-IV versus level II-V selective neck dissections in node-positive papillary thyroid carcinoma patients is far from categorical, with pros and cons for both approaches. Hence, we feel that there is a need for more robust homogeneous data in order to provide an answer to this question.

Therapeutic lateral neck dissection in well-differentiated thyroid cancer: Analysis on factors predicting distribution of positive nodes and prognosis

BACKGROUND

Neck dissection is considered the treatment of choice in patients with lateral neck metastases from well-differentiated thyroid cancer.

METHODS

A multicenter, retrospective review of patients who underwent therapeutic lateral neck dissection for well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma was carried out.

RESULTS

The study included a total of 405 lateral neck dissections performed in 352 patients; 197 women (56%) and 155 men (44%). When considering ipsilateral neck metastases, levels IIa, IIb, III, IV, Va, Vb, and V (not otherwise specified) were involved in 42%, 6%, 73%, 67%, 11%, 31%, and 35% of cases, respectively. Five-year and 10-year overall survival (OS) were 93% and 81%, respectively. Age >55 years, pathologic T (pT)4 category, tumor diameter >4 cm, aggressive variants of well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma, endovascular invasion, and number of positive nodes >5 turned out to be the most important prognostic factors.

CONCLUSION

Neck dissection is a valid treatment option in the presence of neck metastasis from well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Levels IIa, III, IV, and Vb should always be removed.

Patterns of regional recurrence in papillary thyroid cancer patients with lateral neck metastases undergoing neck dissection

Background

Practice variability exists for the extent of neck dissection undertaken for papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) metastatic to the lateral neck nodes, with disagreement over routine level V dissection.

Methods

We performed a retrospective medical record review of PTC patients with lateral neck nodal metastases treated at University Health Network from 2000 to 2012. Predictive factors for regional neck recurrence, including extent of initial neck dissection, were analyzed using Cox regression.

Results

Out of 204 neck dissections in 178 patients, 110 (54%) underwent selective and 94 (46%) had comprehensive dissection including level Vb. Mean follow-up was 6.3 years (SD). Significant predictors of regional failure were the total number of suspicious nodes on preoperative imaging (p = 0.029), largest positive node on initial neck dissection (p < 0.01), and whether patients received adjuvant radiotherapy (p = 0.028). The 5-year ipsilateral regional recurrence rate was 8 and 9% with selective and comprehensive dissection, respectively (p = 0.89).

Conclusion

The extent of neck dissection did not predict the probability of regional recurrence in PTC patients presenting with lateral neck metastases.

Efficacy of Superselective Neck Dissection in Detecting Metastasis in Patients with cN0 Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma at High Risk of Lateral Neck Metastasis

Background

This study aimed to evaluate superselective neck dissection (SSND) in patients with cN0 papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) at high risk of lateral cervical lymph node (LN) metastasis.

Material/Methods

This study enrolled 138 patients with PTC who underwent SSND. These patients were at high risk for LN metastasis and the rate of cervical LN metastasis was recorded.

Results

In all, 146 lateral neck dissections were performed in 138 patients. Intraoperative pathological data revealed LN metastasis from 55 cases, for which Level II and V dissection were performed. Ninety SSNDs were performed in the other 83 patients without metastasis identified in frozen sections. Occult lymph node metastasis (OLNM) rates were 56.8% and 43.5% in the central compartment and lateral neck, respectively. OLNM rates of Level II–VI were 17.8%, 31.5%, 36.3%, 1.4%, and 56.8%, respectively. Level VI metastasis (p<0.001), extra thyroidal extension (p=0.003), and tumor size (p=0.011) were significant factors for lateral neck LN metastasis.

Conclusions

SSND might be effective for early diagnosis of lateral neck metastases of PTC. Patients with OLNM should receive level II, III, and IV dissection, but level V dissection could be omitted.

Indications and extent of central neck dissection for papillary thyroid cancer: An American Head and Neck Society Consensus Statement

BACKGROUND

The primary purposes of this interdisciplinary consensus statement were to review the relevant indications for central neck dissection (CND) in patients with papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) and to outline the appropriate extent and relevant techniques required to accomplish a safe and effective CND.

METHODS

A writing group convened by the American Head and Neck Society (AHNS) Endocrine Committee was tasked with identifying the important clinical elements to consider when managing the central neck compartment in patients with PTC based on available evidence in the literature, and the group's collective experience. The position statement paper was then submitted to the full Endocrine Committee, Education Committee, and AHNS Council.

RESULTS

This consensus statement was developed to inform the clinical decision-making process when managing the central neck compartment in patients with PTC from the AHNS. This document is intended to provide clarity through definitions as well as a basic guideline from which to manage the central neck. It is our hope that this improves the quality and reduces variation in management of the central neck, facilitates communication, and furthers research for patients with thyroid cancer.

CONCLUSION

This represents, in our opinion, contemporary optimal surgical care for this patient population and is endorsed by the American Head and Neck Society. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Head Neck 39: 1269-1279, 2017.

Patterns, predictive factors and prognostic impact of multilevel metastasis in N1b papillary thyroid carcinoma

BACKGROUND

The patterns, predictive factors and prognostic impact of multilevel metastasis in patients with N1b papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) were investigated.

METHODS

A retrospective review of patients with N1b PTC from a tertiary referral centre in Korea who underwent unilateral modified radical neck dissection was undertaken.

RESULTS

Of 658 patients, multilevel metastasis was found in 73·9 per cent; the most common type was metastasis in two levels. Tumour size per 0·1-cm increment (adjusted odds ratio (OR) 1·33, 95 per cent c.i. 1·08 to 1·64), microscopic extrathyroidal extension (adjusted OR 1·72, 1·10 to 2·71), gross extrathyroidal extension (adjusted OR 2·35, 1·24 to 4·46), unilateral central lymph node metastasis (adjusted OR 2·45, 1·53 to 3·92) and bilateral central lymph node metastasis (adjusted OR 4·06, 2·29 to 7·18) were independent predictors of multilevel metastasis. Only four-level metastasis significantly increased the risk of overall locoregional recurrence (LRR) (adjusted hazard ratio (HR) 7·41, 95 per cent c.i. 2·20 to 24·53) and lateral neck LRR (adjusted HR 7·22, 1·82 to 28·65), compared with one-level metastasis. Two subgroup analyses were conducted, showing that only three-level metastasis including metastasis in level V significantly increased the risk of overall LRR (adjusted HR 5·66, 1·20 to 26·75). In addition, having level V metastasis was an independent predictor of both overall (adjusted HR 3·26, 1·72 to 6·18; P < 0·001) and lateral neck (adjusted HR 3·28, 1·50 to 7·16; P = 0·003) LRR.

CONCLUSION

Level V metastasis rather than multilevel metastasis itself is associated with an increased risk of LRR. Patients with N1b PTC and level V metastasis require risk restratification and meticulous follow-up.

Mapping the distribution of nodal metastases in papillary thyroid carcinoma: Where exactly are the nodes?

OBJECTIVE

To characterize nodal disease of patients presenting with papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective chart review.

METHODS

PTC patients who underwent thyroidectomy and/or neck dissection (revision/primary) from 2004 to 2009 at a tertiary-care hospital were reviewed. Preoperative computed tomography (CT) scan and ultrasonography were utilized to identify macroscopic, clinically apparent nodal metastasis (cN+). Demographic data, type of surgery, nodal disease, and primary tumor information were recorded.

RESULTS

Of 416 patients reviewed, 35% had cN+ on initial presentation (IP); of these, 88% and 50% had central (CND) and lateral nodal disease (LND), respectively. The presence of ectopic nodal (END) metastases (nodal disease outside typical CND or LND locations) was absent on IP but occurred in 9% of patients with nodal recurrence. END was typically found in the retropharyngeal area but also was noted in the sublingual region, subcutaneous location, axilla, and chest wall. Extrathyroidal extension (ETE) was found in 8.9% without nodal disease, 33.1% with nodal disease, and 57.1% with END (P < 0.0001). Primary tumor size greater than 4 cm (P = 0.05) was associated with nodal disease.

CONCLUSION

This report represents a large series describing characteristics of the primary PTC tumor and associated nodal disease not only in the central and lateral neck but also in the ectopic locations. Our results suggest that a significant proportion of patients will have nodal disease in the central compartment on IP, especially younger patients. ETE and tumor size are associated with macroscopic nodal disease (including END). Nine percent of the patients with nodal recurrence had ectopic nodes occurring in various locations, most commonly in the retropharynx. CT scan can assist with identification and surgical planning of recurrent nodal disease.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

4. Laryngoscope, 127:1959-1964, 2017.