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Wang C, Huangfu Y, Wang J, Lu X, Liu D, Zhang ZL. Microchip construction for migration assays: investigating the impact of physical confinement on cell morphology and motility during vaccinia virus infection. Anal Bioanal Chem 2024:10.1007/s00216-024-05485-5. [PMID: 39158632 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-024-05485-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2024] [Revised: 08/05/2024] [Accepted: 08/06/2024] [Indexed: 08/20/2024]
Abstract
Vaccinia virus (VACV)-induced cell migration is thought to be closely related to the rapid transmission of viral infection in the body. The limited studies are mainly based on scratch assay using traditional cell culture techniques, which inevitably ignores the influences of extracellular microenvironment. Physical confinement, inherently presenting in vivo, has proven to be a critical extern cue in modulating migration behaviors of multiple cells, while its impacts on VACV-induced cell motility remain unclear. Herein, we developed a migration assay microchip featuring confined microchannel array to investigate the effect of physical confinement on infected cell morphology and motility during VACV infection. Results showed that different from the random cell migration observed in traditional scratch assay on planar substrate, VACV-infected cells exhibited accelerated directionally persistent migration under confinement microenvironment. Moreover, single-directed elongated dominant lamella appeared to contrast distinctly with multiple protrusions stretched in random directions under unconfined condition. Additionally, the Golgi complex tended to relocate behind the nucleus confined within the microchannel axis compared to the classical reorientation pattern. These differences in characteristic subcellular architecture and organelle reorientation of migrating cells revealed cell biological mechanisms underlying altered migration behavior. Collectively, our study demonstrates that physical confinement acting as a guidance cue has profound impacts on VACV-induced migration behaviors, which provides new insight into cell migration behavior and viral rapid spread during VACV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong Laboratory of Development and Diseases, Nantong University, Nantong, 226019, China.
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China.
| | - Yueyue Huangfu
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Ji Wang
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, 999077, China
| | - Xiaofeng Lu
- School of Life Sciences, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong Laboratory of Development and Diseases, Nantong University, Nantong, 226019, China
| | - Dong Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong Laboratory of Development and Diseases, Nantong University, Nantong, 226019, China
| | - Zhi-Ling Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China.
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2
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Veld LF, Waters S, Irish A, Price P, Lee S. An IL-10 homologue encoded by human cytomegalovirus is linked with the viral "footprint" in clinical samples. Cytokine 2024; 180:156654. [PMID: 38810501 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2024.156654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
Persistent infections with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) affect the hosts' immune system and have been linked with chronic inflammation and cardiovascular disease. These effects may be influenced by a HCMV-encoded homologue of the anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10 (cmvIL-10). To assess this, we quantitated cmvIL-10 in plasma from renal transplant recipients (RTR) and healthy adults. Detectable levels of cmvIL-10 associated with seropositivity in RTR, but were found in some seronegative healthy adults. RTR with detectable cmvIL-10 had elevated interferon-γ T-cell responses to HCMV antigens, whilst cmvIL-10 in healthy adults associated with reduced populations of terminally-differentiated T-cells - a known "footprint" of HCMV. Plasma cmvIL-10 associated with lower VCAM-1 levels in healthy adults. The data suggest cmvIL-10 may suppress seroconversion and/or reduce the footprint of HCMV in healthy adults. This appears to be subverted in RTR by their high burden of HCMV and/or immune dysregulation associated with transplantation. A role for cmvIL-10 in protection of vascular health is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luna-Faye Veld
- Curtin Medical School, Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, Australia
| | - Shelley Waters
- Curtin Medical School, Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, Australia.
| | - Ashley Irish
- Renal Unit, Fiona Stanley Hospital, Murdoch, Australia; School of Medicine and Pharmacology, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Australia
| | - Patricia Price
- Curtin Medical School, Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, Australia
| | - Silvia Lee
- Curtin Medical School, Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, Australia; Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Pathwest Laboratory Medicine, Murdoch, Australia
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3
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Xin Y, Zhou Y. Association between cytomegalovirus infection and dyslipidemia in US: an NHANES analysis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2024:10.1007/s10096-024-04905-9. [PMID: 39066967 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-024-04905-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is widely prevalent worldwide, which may have relationship with dyslipidemia. The aim of this study is to explore the association between CMV infection and dyslipidemia. METHODS The total observed population of this study included 14,163 participants aged 6-49 years from 1999 to 2004 National Health and Nutritional Examination Surveys (NHANES). Immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels and four lipid parameters (triglyceride, low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), total cholesterol, and high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C)) were analyzed by performing multiple logistic regression and subgroup analysis. RESULTS The median values of triglycerides, LDL-C and total cholesterol levels in the CMV positive group were higher than those in CMV negative group while a lower median value of HDL-C existed in positive group. After controlling for potential confounders (sex, age, race, country of birth, education, poverty-to-income ratio(PIR)), a close association between CMV infection and low HDL-C was observed, which persisted in the men aged 30-49 and women aged 12-19, 30-49. CONCLUSIONS CMV infection is related to dyslipidemia, and this association is more significant in the serum HDL-C. Further cohort studies and experimental evidences can be conducted to test this association and then guide clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiyang Xin
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Yun Zhou
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, China.
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4
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Wang Y, Yan M, Zhang P, Wu X, Huang S, Chen S, Rong Y, Sheng Y, Wang Y, Mao G, Chen L, Wang S, Yang B. Structure elucidation and antiviral activity of a cold water-extracted mannogalactofucan Ts1-1A from Trametes sanguinea against human cytomegalovirus in vitro. Carbohydr Polym 2024; 335:122101. [PMID: 38616079 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 03/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
In this study, we purified a partially acetylated heteropolysaccharide (Ts1-1A) from the fruit bodies of Trametes sanguinea Lloyd through cold water extraction and serial chromatographic separation. The purified polysaccharide Ts1-1A (12.8 kDa) was characterized as a branched mannogalactofucan with a backbone of alternately connected 1,3-linked α-Fucp and 1,6-linked α-Galp, which was partially substituted by non-reducing end units of β-Manp at O-2 and O-3 positions of 1,6-linked α-Galp. Ts1-1A showed pronounced anti-human cytomegalovirus activity at the concentration of 200 and 500 μg/mL in systematical assessments including morphological changes, western blotting, qPCR, indirect immunofluorescence and tissue culture infective dose assays. Moreover, Ts1-1A exerted its antiviral activity at two distinct stages of viral proliferation manifesting as significantly inhibiting viral protein (IE1/2 and p52) expression and reducing viral gene (UL123, UL44 and UL32) replication in the HCMV-infected WI-38 cells. At viral attachment stage, Ts1-1A interacted with HCMV and prevented HCMV from attaching to its host cells. While at early phase of viral replication stage, Ts1-1A suppressed HCMV replication by downregulating NQO1 and HO-1 proteins related to oxidative stress as an antioxidant. To sum up, Ts1-1A is a promising anti-HCMV agent which could be developed for HCMV infection prevention and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiran Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 260 Baichuan Street, Hangzhou 311402, PR China
| | - Mengxia Yan
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 260 Baichuan Street, Hangzhou 311402, PR China
| | - Panpan Zhang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 260 Baichuan Street, Hangzhou 311402, PR China
| | - Xinna Wu
- Affiliated Zhejiang Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310030, PR China
| | - Siyang Huang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 260 Baichuan Street, Hangzhou 311402, PR China
| | - Siru Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 260 Baichuan Street, Hangzhou 311402, PR China
| | - Yizhou Rong
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 260 Baichuan Street, Hangzhou 311402, PR China
| | - Yunjie Sheng
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 260 Baichuan Street, Hangzhou 311402, PR China
| | - Yangyang Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 260 Baichuan Street, Hangzhou 311402, PR China
| | - Genxiang Mao
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Lab of Geriatrics & Geriatrics Institute of Zhejiang Province, Department of Geriatrics, Zhejiang Hospital, Hangzhou 310030, PR China.
| | - Libing Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 260 Baichuan Street, Hangzhou 311402, PR China.
| | - Sanying Wang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Lab of Geriatrics & Geriatrics Institute of Zhejiang Province, Department of Geriatrics, Zhejiang Hospital, Hangzhou 310030, PR China.
| | - Bo Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 260 Baichuan Street, Hangzhou 311402, PR China.
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5
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Miller WE, O'Connor CM. CMV-encoded GPCRs in infection, disease, and pathogenesis. Adv Virus Res 2024; 118:1-75. [PMID: 38461029 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2024.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/11/2024]
Abstract
G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are seven-transmembrane domain proteins that modulate cellular processes in response to external stimuli. These receptors represent the largest family of membrane proteins, and in mammals, their signaling regulates important physiological functions, such as vision, taste, and olfaction. Many organisms, including yeast, slime molds, and viruses encode GPCRs. Cytomegaloviruses (CMVs) are large, betaherpesviruses, that encode viral GPCRs (vGPCRs). Human CMV (HCMV) encodes four vGPCRs, including UL33, UL78, US27, and US28. Each of these vGPCRs, as well as their rodent and primate orthologues, have been investigated for their contributions to viral infection and disease. Herein, we discuss how the CMV vGPCRs function during lytic and latent infection, as well as our understanding of how they impact viral pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- William E Miller
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Bioscience, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Christine M O'Connor
- Infection Biology, Sheikha Fatima bint Mubarak Global Center for Pathogen and Human Health Research, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States; Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States; Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, OH, United States.
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Álvarez-Heredia P, Reina-Alfonso I, Domínguez-del-Castillo JJ, Hassouneh F, Gutiérrez-González C, Batista-Duharte A, Pérez AB, Sarramea F, Jaén-Moreno MJ, Camacho-Rodríguez C, Tarazona R, Solana R, Molina J, Pera A. Spanish HCMV Seroprevalence in the 21st Century. Viruses 2023; 16:6. [PMID: 38275940 PMCID: PMC10819642 DOI: 10.3390/v16010006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is linked to age-related diseases like cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative conditions, and cancer. It can also cause congenital defects and severe illness in immunocompromised individuals. Accurate HCMV seroprevalence assessment is essential for public health planning and identifying at-risk individuals. This is the first HCMV seroprevalence study conducted in the general Spanish adult population in 30 years. We studied HCMV seroprevalence and HCMV IgG antibody titres in healthy adult donors (HDs) and HCMV-related disease patients from 2010 to 2013 and 2020 to 2023, categorized by sex and age. We compared our data with 1993 and 1999 studies in Spain. The current HCMV seroprevalence among HDs in Spain is 73.48%. In women of childbearing age, HCMV seroprevalence has increased 1.4-fold in the last decade. HCMV-seropositive individuals comprise 89.83% of CVD patients, 69% of SMI patients, and 70.37% of COVID-19 patients. No differences in HCMV seroprevalence or HCMV IgG antibody titres were observed between patients and HDs. A significant reduction in Spanish HCMV seroprevalence among HDs was observed in 1993. However, women of childbearing age have shown an upturn in the last decade that may denote a health risk in newborns and a change in HCMV seroprevalence trends.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Álvarez-Heredia
- Immunology and Allergy Group (GC01), Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Cordoba (IMIBIC)/University of Cordoba/Reina Sofia University Hospital, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain; (I.R.-A.); (F.H.); (C.G.-G.); (A.B.-D.); (R.S.); (J.M.)
| | - Irene Reina-Alfonso
- Immunology and Allergy Group (GC01), Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Cordoba (IMIBIC)/University of Cordoba/Reina Sofia University Hospital, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain; (I.R.-A.); (F.H.); (C.G.-G.); (A.B.-D.); (R.S.); (J.M.)
| | - José Joaquín Domínguez-del-Castillo
- Cardiovascular Pathology (GA09), Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Cordoba (IMIBIC)/University of Cordoba/Reina Sofia University Hospital, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain;
| | - Fakhri Hassouneh
- Immunology and Allergy Group (GC01), Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Cordoba (IMIBIC)/University of Cordoba/Reina Sofia University Hospital, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain; (I.R.-A.); (F.H.); (C.G.-G.); (A.B.-D.); (R.S.); (J.M.)
| | - Carmen Gutiérrez-González
- Immunology and Allergy Group (GC01), Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Cordoba (IMIBIC)/University of Cordoba/Reina Sofia University Hospital, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain; (I.R.-A.); (F.H.); (C.G.-G.); (A.B.-D.); (R.S.); (J.M.)
| | - Alexander Batista-Duharte
- Immunology and Allergy Group (GC01), Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Cordoba (IMIBIC)/University of Cordoba/Reina Sofia University Hospital, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain; (I.R.-A.); (F.H.); (C.G.-G.); (A.B.-D.); (R.S.); (J.M.)
| | - Ana-Belén Pérez
- Microbiology Service, Reina Sofia University Hospital of Cordoba/Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute (IMIBIC)/CIBERINFEC, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain;
| | - Fernando Sarramea
- Severe Mental Illness-Health Alerts (GA12), Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Cordoba (IMIBIC)/University of Cordoba/Reina Sofia University Hospital, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain; (F.S.); (M.J.J.-M.); (C.C.-R.)
- Department of Morphological and Socio-Health Sciences, University of Cordoba, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain
- Mental Health Clinical Management Unit, Reina Sofía University Hospital/ CIBERSAM, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain
| | - María José Jaén-Moreno
- Severe Mental Illness-Health Alerts (GA12), Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Cordoba (IMIBIC)/University of Cordoba/Reina Sofia University Hospital, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain; (F.S.); (M.J.J.-M.); (C.C.-R.)
- Department of Morphological and Socio-Health Sciences, University of Cordoba, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain
| | - Cristina Camacho-Rodríguez
- Severe Mental Illness-Health Alerts (GA12), Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Cordoba (IMIBIC)/University of Cordoba/Reina Sofia University Hospital, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain; (F.S.); (M.J.J.-M.); (C.C.-R.)
| | - Raquel Tarazona
- Immunology Unit, Department of Physiology, University of Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain;
| | - Rafael Solana
- Immunology and Allergy Group (GC01), Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Cordoba (IMIBIC)/University of Cordoba/Reina Sofia University Hospital, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain; (I.R.-A.); (F.H.); (C.G.-G.); (A.B.-D.); (R.S.); (J.M.)
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Cordoba, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain
- Immunology and Allergy Service, Reina Sofia University Hospital of Cordoba, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain
| | - Juan Molina
- Immunology and Allergy Group (GC01), Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Cordoba (IMIBIC)/University of Cordoba/Reina Sofia University Hospital, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain; (I.R.-A.); (F.H.); (C.G.-G.); (A.B.-D.); (R.S.); (J.M.)
- Immunology and Allergy Service, Reina Sofia University Hospital of Cordoba, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain
| | - Alejandra Pera
- Immunology and Allergy Group (GC01), Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Cordoba (IMIBIC)/University of Cordoba/Reina Sofia University Hospital, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain; (I.R.-A.); (F.H.); (C.G.-G.); (A.B.-D.); (R.S.); (J.M.)
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Cordoba, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain
- Immunology and Allergy Service, Reina Sofia University Hospital of Cordoba, Av. Menendez Pidal s/n, 14004 Cordoba, Spain
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7
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Bomfim GF, Priviero F, Poole E, Tostes RC, Sinclair JH, Stamou D, Uline MJ, Wills MR, Webb RC. Cytomegalovirus and Cardiovascular Disease: A Hypothetical Role for Viral G-Protein-Coupled Receptors in Hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2023; 36:471-480. [PMID: 37148218 PMCID: PMC10403975 DOI: 10.1093/ajh/hpad045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a member of the β-herpesviruses and is ubiquitous, infecting 50%-99% of the human population depending on ethnic and socioeconomic conditions. CMV establishes lifelong, latent infections in their host. Spontaneous reactivation of CMV is usually asymptomatic, but reactivation events in immunocompromised or immunosuppressed individuals can lead to severe morbidity and mortality. Moreover, herpesvirus infections have been associated with several cardiovascular and post-transplant diseases (stroke, atherosclerosis, post-transplant vasculopathy, and hypertension). Herpesviruses, including CMV, encode viral G-protein-coupled receptors (vGPCRs) that alter the host cell by hijacking signaling pathways that play important roles in the viral life cycle and these cardiovascular diseases. In this brief review, we discuss the pharmacology and signaling properties of these vGPCRs, and their contribution to hypertension. Overall, these vGPCRs can be considered attractive targets moving forward in the development of novel hypertensive therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisele F Bomfim
- Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso, campus Sinop (UFMT), Sinop, MT, Brazil
- Cardiovascular Translational Research Center, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
| | - Fernanda Priviero
- Cardiovascular Translational Research Center, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
- Biomedical Engineering Program, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
| | - Emma Poole
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Rita C Tostes
- Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo (FMRP-USP), Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - John H Sinclair
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Mark J Uline
- Cardiovascular Translational Research Center, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
- Biomedical Engineering Program, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
| | - Mark R Wills
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - R Clinton Webb
- Cardiovascular Translational Research Center, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
- Biomedical Engineering Program, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
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