A folded protein can be transported across the chloroplast envelope and thylakoid membranes

The polar amino acid in the TatA transmembrane helix is not strictly necessary for protein function

The twin-arginine translocation (Tat) pathway utilizes the proton-motive force (pmf) to transport folded proteins across cytoplasmic membranes in bacteria and archaea, as well as across the thylakoid membrane in plants and the inner membrane in mitochondria. In most species, the minimal components required for Tat activity consist of three subunits, TatA, TatB, and TatC. Previous studies have shown that a polar amino acid is present at the N-terminus of the TatA transmembrane helix (TMH) across many different species. In order to systematically assess the functional importance of this polar amino acid in the TatA TMH in Escherichia coli, we examined a complete set of 19-amino-acid substitutions. Unexpectedly, although being preferred overall, our experiments suggest that the polar amino acid is not necessary for a functional TatA. Hydrophilicity and helix-stabilizing properties of this polar amino acid were found to be highly correlated with the Tat activity. Specifically, change in charge status of the amino acid side chain due to pH resulted in a shift in hydrophilicity, which was demonstrated to impact the Tat transport activity. Furthermore, we identified a four-residue motif at the N-terminus of the TatA TMH by sequence alignment. Using a biochemical approach, we found that the N-terminal motif was functionally significant, with evidence indicating a potential role in the preference for utilizing different pmf components. Taken together, these findings yield new insights into the functionality of TatA and its potential role in the Tat transport mechanism.

GREEN FLUORESCENT PROTEIN variants with enhanced folding are more efficiently imported into chloroplasts

Chloroplasts and mitochondria are subcellular organelles that evolved from cyanobacteria and α-proteobacteria, respectively. Although they have their own genomes, the majority of their proteins are encoded by nuclear genes, translated by cytosolic ribosomes, and imported via outer and inner membrane translocon complexes. The unfolding of mature regions of proteins is thought to be a prerequisite for the import of the proteins into these organelles. However, it is not fully understood how protein folding properties affect their import into these organelles. In this study, we examined the import behavior of chloroplast and mitochondrial reporters with normal green fluorescent protein (GFP) and two GFP variants with enhanced folding propensity, superfolder GFP (sfGFP) and extra-superfolder GFP (esGFP), which is folded better than sfGFP. sfGFP and esGFP were less dependent on the sequence motifs of the transit peptide (TP) and import machinery during protein import into Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) chloroplasts, compared with normal GFP. sfGFP and esGFP were efficiently imported into chloroplasts by a mutant TP with an alanine substitution in the N-terminal MLM motif, whereas the same mutant TP showed a defect in importing normal GFP into chloroplasts. Moreover, sfGFP and esGFP were efficiently imported into plastid protein import 2 (ppi2) and heat shock protein 93-V (hsp93-V) plants, which have mutations in atToc159 and Hsp93-V, respectively. In contrast, the presequence-mediated mitochondrial import of sfGFP and esGFP was severely impaired. Based on these results, we propose that the chloroplast import machinery is more tolerant to different folding states of preproteins, whereas the mitochondrial machinery is more specialized in the translocation of unfolded preproteins.

Hydrophobic mismatch is a key factor in protein transport across lipid bilayer membranes via the Tat pathway

The twin-arginine translocation (Tat) pathway transports folded proteins across membranes in bacteria, thylakoids, plant mitochondria, and archaea. In most species, the active Tat machinery consists of three independent subunits: TatA, TatB, and TatC. TatA and TatB possess short transmembrane alpha helices (TMHs), both of which are only 15 residues long in Escherichia coli. Such short TMHs cause a hydrophobic mismatch between Tat subunits and the membrane bilayer, although the functional significance of this mismatch is unclear. Here, we sought to address the functional importance of the hydrophobic mismatch in the Tat transport mechanism in E. coli. We conducted three different assays to evaluate the effect of TMH length mutants on Tat activity and observed that the TMHs of TatA and TatB appear to be evolutionarily tuned to 15 amino acids, with activity dropping off following any modification of this length. Surprisingly, TatA and TatB with as few as 11 residues in their TMHs can still insert into the membrane bilayer, albeit with a decline in membrane integrity. These findings support a model of Tat transport utilizing localized toroidal pores that form when the membrane bilayer is thinned to a critical threshold. In this context, we conclude that the 15-residue length of the TatA and TatB TMHs can be seen as a compromise between the need for some hydrophobic mismatch to allow the membrane to reversibly reach the threshold thinness required for toroidal pore formation and the permanently destabilizing effect of placing even shorter helices into these energy-transducing membranes.

PP2A Catalytic Subunit α promotes fibroblast activation and kidney fibrosis via ERK pathway

Protein Phosphatase 2A (PP2A), a main serine/threonine phosphatase, plays a profibrotic role in the development of different organs. However, the role and mechanisms of PP2Acα in fibroblast activation and kidney fibrosis are not fully known. Here we found that PP2Acα expression was upregulated in kidney tissue of chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients and unilateral ureter obstructive (UUO) mice. Ablation of fibroblast PP2Acα alleviates fibroblast activation and kidney fibrosis in mouse kidneys with UUO nephropathy compared with the control littermates. In primary cultured fibroblasts, PP2Acα deletion restrains TGFβ1-induced fibroblast activation, which is accompanied by increased phosphorylation of the extracellular regulated kinase (ERK). Blocking ERK pathway activation by PD98059 could promote fibroblast activation, indicating that PP2Acα promotes TGFβ1-induced fibroblast activation via suppressing ERK pathway. Consistently, in vivo, the activation of ERK pathway was upregulated by PP2Acα ablation in kidney fibroblasts. Together, these data uncover that PP2Acα may promote fibroblast activation and kidney fibrosis via suppressing ERK pathway, suggesting that targeting PP2Acα may provide a therapeutic effect for CKD.

Electrochromic shift supports the membrane destabilization model of Tat-mediated transport and shows ion leakage during Sec transport

The mechanism and pore architecture of the Tat complex during transport of folded substrates remain a mystery, partly due to rapid dissociation after translocation. In contrast, the proteinaceous SecY pore is a persistent structure that needs only to undergo conformational shifts between "closed" and "opened" states when translocating unfolded substrate chains. Where the proteinaceous pore model describes the SecY pore well, the toroidal pore model better accounts for the high-energy barrier that must be overcome when transporting a folded substrate through the hydrophobic bilayer in Tat transport. Membrane conductance behavior can, in principle, be used to distinguish between toroidal and proteinaceous pores, as illustrated in the examination of many antimicrobial peptides as well as mitochondrial Bax and Bid. Here, we measure the electrochromic shift (ECS) decay as a proxy for conductance in isolated thylakoids, both during protein transport and with constitutively assembled translocons. We find that membranes with the constitutively assembled Tat complex and those undergoing Tat transport display conductance characteristics similar to those of resting membranes. Membranes undergoing Sec transport and those with the substrate-engaged SecY pore result in significantly more rapid electric field decay. The responsiveness of the ECS signal in membranes with active SecY recalls the steep relationship between applied voltage and conductance in a proteinaceous pore, while the nonaccelerated electric field decay with both Tat transport and the constitutive Tat complex under the same electric field is consistent with the behavior of a toroidal pore.

Soluble TatA forms oligomers that interact with membranes: Structure and insertion studies of a versatile protein transporter

The twin-arginine translocase (Tat) mediates the transport of already-folded proteins across membranes in bacteria, plants and archaea. TatA is a small, dynamic subunit of the Tat-system that is believed to be the active component during target protein translocation. TatA is foremost characterized as a bitopic membrane protein, but has also been found to partition into a soluble, oligomeric structure of yet unknown function. To elucidate the interplay between the membrane-bound and soluble forms we have investigated the oligomers formed by Arabidopsis thaliana TatA. We used several biophysical techniques to study the oligomeric structure in solution, the conversion that takes place upon interaction with membrane models of different compositions, and the effect on bilayer integrity upon insertion. Our results demonstrate that in solution TatA oligomerizes into large objects with a high degree of ordered structure. Upon interaction with lipids, conformational changes take place and TatA disintegrates into lower order oligomers. The insertion of TatA into lipid bilayers causes a temporary leakage of small molecules across the bilayer. The disruptive effect on the membrane is dependent on the liposome's negative surface charge density, with more leakage observed for purely zwitterionic bilayers. Overall, our findings indicate that A. thaliana TatA forms oligomers in solution that insert into bilayers, a process that involves reorganization of the protein oligomer.

Transport of Folded Proteins by the Tat System

The twin-arginine protein translocation (Tat) system has been characterized in bacteria, archaea and the chloroplast thylakoidal membrane. This system is distinct from other protein transport systems with respect to two key features. Firstly, it accepts cargo proteins with an N-terminal signal peptide that carries the canonical twin-arginine motif, which is essential for transport. Second, the Tat system only accepts and translocates fully folded cargo proteins across the respective membrane. Here, we review the core essential features of folded protein transport via the bacterial Tat system, using the three-component TatABC system of Escherichia coli and the two-component TatAC systems of Bacillus subtilis as the main examples. In particular, we address features of twin-arginine signal peptides, the essential Tat components and how they assemble into different complexes, mechanistic features and energetics of Tat-dependent protein translocation, cytoplasmic chaperoning of Tat cargo proteins, and the remarkable proofreading capabilities of the Tat system. In doing so, we present the current state of our understanding of Tat-dependent protein translocation across biological membranes, which may serve as a lead for future investigations.

The Twin-Arginine Pathway for Protein Secretion

The Tat pathway for protein translocation across bacterial membranes stands out for its selective handling of fully folded cargo proteins. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of our current understanding of the different known Tat components, their assembly into different complexes, and their specific roles in the protein translocation process. In particular, this overview focuses on the Gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli and the Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis. Using these organisms as examples, we discuss structural features of Tat complexes alongside mechanistic models that allow for the Tat pathway's unique protein proofreading and transport capabilities. Finally, we highlight recent advances in exploiting the Tat pathway for biotechnological benefit, the production of high-value pharmaceutical proteins.

Functional reconstitution of TatB into the thylakoidal Tat translocase

We have established an experimental system for the functional analysis of thylakoidal TatB, a component of the membrane-integral TatBC receptor complex of the thylakoidal Twin-arginine protein transport (Tat) machinery. For this purpose, the intrinsic TatB activity of isolated pea thylakoids was inhibited by affinity-purified antibodies and substituted by supplementing the assays with TatB protein either obtained by in vitro translation or purified after heterologous expression in E. coli. Tat transport activity of such reconstituted thylakoids, which was analysed with the authentic Tat substrate pOEC16, reached routinely 20-25% of the activity of mock-treated thylakoid vesicles analysed in parallel. In contrast, supplementation of the assays with the purified antigen comprising all but the N-terminal transmembrane helix of thylakoidal TatB did not result in Tat transport reconstitution which confirms that transport relies strictly on the activity of the TatB protein added and is not due to restoration of the intrinsic TatB activity by antibody release. Unexpectedly, even a mutated TatB protein (TatB,E10C) assumed to be incapable of assembling into the TatBC receptor complex showed low but considerable transport reconstitution underlining the sensitivity of the approach and its suitability for further functional analyses of protein variants. Finally, quantification of TatB demand suggests that TatA and TatB are required in approximately equimolar amounts to achieve Tat-dependent thylakoid transport.

The Tat protein transport system: intriguing questions and conundrums

The Tat machinery catalyzes the transport of folded proteins across the cytoplasmic membrane in bacteria and the thylakoid membrane in plants. Transport occurs only in the presence of an electric field (Δψ) and/or a pH (ΔpH) gradient, and thus, Tat transport is considered to be dependent on the proton motive force (pmf). This presents a fundamental and major challenge, namely, that the Tat system catalyzes the movement of large folded protein cargos across a membrane without collapse of ion gradients. Current models argue that the active translocon assembles de novo for each cargo transported, thus providing an effective gating mechanism to minimize ion leakage. A limited structural understanding of the intermediates occurring during transport and the role of the pmf in stabilizing and/or driving this process have hindered the development of more detailed models. A fundamental question that remains unanswered is whether the pmf is actually 'consumed', providing an energetic driving force for transport, or alternatively, whether its presence is instead necessary to provide the appropriate environment for the translocon components to become active. Including addressing this issue in greater detail, we explore a series of additional questions that challenge current models, and, hopefully, motivate future work.

Evaluating the Functional Pore Size of Chloroplast TOC and TIC Protein Translocons: Import of Folded Proteins

The degree of residual structure retained by proteins while passing through biological membranes is a fundamental mechanistic question of protein translocation. Proteins are generally thought to be unfolded while transported through canonical proteinaceous translocons, including the translocons of the outer and inner chloroplast envelope membranes (TOC and TIC). Here, we readdressed the issue and found that the TOC/TIC translocons accommodated the tightly folded dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) protein in complex with its stabilizing ligand, methotrexate (MTX). We employed a fluorescein-conjugated methotrexate (FMTX), which has slow membrane transport rates relative to unconjugated MTX, to show that the rate of ligand accumulation inside chloroplasts is faster when bound to DHFR that is actively being imported. Stromal accumulation of FMTX is ATP dependent when DHFR is actively being imported but is otherwise ATP independent, again indicating DHFR/FMTX complex import. Furthermore, the TOC/TIC pore size was probed with fixed-diameter particles and found to be greater than 25.6 Å, large enough to support folded DHFR import and also larger than mitochondrial and bacterial protein translocons that have a requirement for protein unfolding. This unique pore size and the ability to import folded proteins have critical implications regarding the structure and mechanism of the TOC/TIC translocons.

Structure and dynamics of plant TatA in micelles and lipid bilayers studied by solution NMR

The twin-arginine translocase (Tat) transports folded proteins across the cytoplasmic membrane of prokaryotes and the thylakoid membrane of plant chloroplasts. In Gram-negative bacteria and chloroplasts, the translocon consists of three subunits, TatA, TatB, and TatC, of which TatA is responsible for the actual membrane translocation of the substrate. Herein we report on the structure, dynamics, and lipid interactions of a fully functional C-terminally truncated 'core TatA' from Arabidopsis thaliana using solution-state NMR. Our results show that TatA consists of a short N-terminal transmembrane helix (TMH), a short connecting linker (hinge) and a long region with propensity to form an amphiphilic helix (APH). The dynamics of TatA were characterized using ¹⁵ N relaxation NMR in combination with model-free analysis. The TMH has order parameters characteristic of a well-structured helix, the hinge is somewhat less rigid, while the APH has lower order parameters indicating structural flexibility. The TMH is short with a surprisingly low protection from solvent, and only the first part of the APH is protected to some extent. In order to uncover possible differences in TatA's structure and dynamics in detergent compared to in a lipid bilayer, fast-tumbling bicelles and large unilamellar vesicles were used. Results indicate that the helicity of TatA increases in both the TMH and APH in the presence of lipids, and that the N-terminal part of the TMH is significantly more rigid. The results indicate that plant TatA has a significant structural plasticity and a capability to adapt to local environments.

Probing the quality control mechanism of the Escherichia coli twin-arginine translocase with folding variants of a de novo-designed heme protein

Protein transport across the cytoplasmic membrane of bacterial cells is mediated by either the general secretion (Sec) system or the twin-arginine translocase (Tat). The Tat machinery exports folded and cofactor-containing proteins from the cytoplasm to the periplasm by using the transmembrane proton motive force as a source of energy. The Tat apparatus apparently senses the folded state of its protein substrates, a quality-control mechanism that prevents premature export of nascent unfolded or misfolded polypeptides, but its mechanistic basis has not yet been determined. Here, we investigated the innate ability of the model Escherichia coli Tat system to recognize and translocate de novo–designed protein substrates with experimentally determined differences in the extent of folding. Water-soluble, four-helix bundle maquette proteins were engineered to bind two, one, or no heme b cofactors, resulting in a concomitant reduction in the extent of their folding, assessed with temperature-dependent CD spectroscopy and one-dimensional ¹H NMR spectroscopy. Fusion of the archetypal N-terminal Tat signal peptide of the E. coli trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) reductase (TorA) to the N terminus of the protein maquettes was sufficient for the Tat system to recognize them as substrates. The clear correlation between the level of Tat-dependent export and the degree of heme b–induced folding of the maquette protein suggested that the membrane-bound Tat machinery can sense the extent of folding and conformational flexibility of its substrates. We propose that these artificial proteins are ideal substrates for future investigations of the Tat system's quality-control mechanism.

How to achieve Tat transport with alien TatA

TatA is an essential and structurally conserved component of all known Twin-arginine transport (Tat) machineries which are able to catalyse membrane transport of fully folded proteins. Here we have investigated if bacterial TatA, or chimeric pea/E. coli TatA derivatives, are capable of replacing thylakoidal TatA in function. While authentic E. coli TatA does not show any transport activity in thylakoid transport experiments, TatA chimeras comprising the transmembrane helix (TMH) of pea TatA are fully active. For minimal catalytic activity it is even sufficient to replace three residues within TMH of E. coli TatA by the corresponding pea residues. Almost any further substitution within TMH gradually raises transport activity in the thylakoid system, while functional characterization of the same set of TatA derivatives in E. coli yields essentially inverse catalytic activities. Closer inspection of the substituted residues suggests that the two transport systems have deviating demands with regard to the hydrophobicity of the transmembrane helix.

Chloroplast Hsp93 Directly Binds to Transit Peptides at an Early Stage of the Preprotein Import Process

Three stromal chaperone ATPases, cpHsc70, Hsp90C, and Hsp93, are present in the chloroplast translocon, but none has been shown to directly bind preproteins in vivo during import, so it remains unclear whether any function as a preprotein-translocating motor and whether they have different functions during the import process. Here, using protein crosslinking followed by ionic detergent solubilization, we show that Hsp93 directly binds to the transit peptides of various preproteins undergoing active import into chloroplasts. Hsp93 also binds to the mature region of a preprotein. A time course study of import, followed by coimmunoprecipitation experiments, confirmed that Hsp93 is present in the same complexes as preproteins at an early stage when preproteins are being processed to the mature size. In contrast, cpHsc70 is present in the same complexes as preproteins at both the early stage and a later stage after the transit peptide has been removed, suggesting that cpHsc70, but not Hsp93, is important in translocating processed mature proteins across the envelope.

Evolution of a plant-specific copper chaperone family for chloroplast copper homeostasis

Metallochaperones traffic copper (Cu(+)) from its point of entry at the plasma membrane to its destination. In plants, one destination is the chloroplast, which houses plastocyanin, a Cu-dependent electron transfer protein involved in photosynthesis. We present a previously unidentified Cu(+) chaperone that evolved early in the plant lineage by an alternative-splicing event of the pre-mRNA encoding the chloroplast P-type ATPase in Arabidopsis 1 (PAA1). In several land plants, recent duplication events created a separate chaperone-encoding gene coincident with loss of alternative splicing. The plant-specific Cu(+) chaperone delivers Cu(+) with specificity for PAA1, which is flipped in the envelope relative to prototypical bacterial ATPases, compatible with a role in Cu(+) import into the stroma and consistent with the canonical catalytic mechanism of these enzymes. The ubiquity of the chaperone suggests conservation of this Cu(+)-delivery mechanism and provides a unique snapshot into the evolution of a Cu(+) distribution pathway. We also provide evidence for an interaction between PAA2, the Cu(+)-ATPase in thylakoids, and the Cu(+)-chaperone for Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (CCS), uncovering a Cu(+) network that has evolved to fine-tune Cu(+) distribution.

New insights into the mechanism of chloroplast protein import and its integration with protein quality control, organelle biogenesis and development

The translocons at the outer (TOC) and the inner (TIC) envelope membranes of chloroplasts mediate the targeting and import of several thousand nucleus-encoded preproteins that are required for organelle biogenesis and homeostasis. The cytosolic events in preprotein targeting remain largely unknown, although cytoplasmic chaperones have been proposed to facilitate delivery to the TOC complex. Preprotein recognition is mediated by the TOC GTPase receptors Toc159 and Toc34. The receptors constitute a GTP-regulated switch, which initiates membrane translocation via Toc75, a member of the Omp85 (outer membrane protein 85)/TpsB (two-partner secretion system B) family of bacterial, plastid and mitochondrial β-barrel outer membrane proteins. The TOC receptor systems have diversified to recognize distinct sets of preproteins, thereby maximizing the efficiency of targeting in response to changes in gene expression during developmental and physiological events that impact organelle function. The TOC complex interacts with the TIC translocon to allow simultaneous translocation of preproteins across the envelope. Both the two inner membrane complexes, the Tic110 and 1 MDa complexes, have been implicated as constituents of the TIC translocon, and it remains to be determined how they interact to form the TIC channel and assemble the import-associated chaperone network in the stroma that drives import across the envelope membranes. This review will focus on recent developments in our understanding of the mechanisms and diversity of the TOC-TIC systems. Our goal is to incorporate these recent studies with previous work and present updated or revised models for the function of TOC-TIC in protein import.

Tat transport of a Sec passenger leads to both completely translocated as well as membrane-arrested passenger proteins

We have studied the membrane transport of the chimeric precursor protein 16/33, which is composed of the Tat(1)-specific transport signal of OEC16 and the Sec passenger protein OEC33, both subunits of the oxygen-evolving system associated with photosystem II. Protein transport experiments performed with isolated pea thylakoids show that the 16/33 chimera is transported in a strictly Tat-dependent manner into the thylakoid vesicles yielding mature OEC33 (mOEC33) in two different topologies. One fraction accumulates in the thylakoid lumen and is thus resistant to externally added protease. A second fraction is arrested during transport in an N-in/C-out topology within the membrane. Chase experiments demonstrate that this membrane-arrested mOEC33 moiety does not represent a translocation intermediate but instead an alternative end product of the transport process. Transport arrest of mOEC33, which is embedded in the membrane with a mildly hydrophobic protein segment, requires more than 26 additional and predominantly hydrophilic residues C-terminal of the membrane-embedded segment. Furthermore, it is stimulated by mutations which potentially affect the conformation of mOEC33 suggesting that at least partial folding of the passenger protein is required for complete membrane translocation.

Oxidative folding in chloroplasts

SIGNIFICANCE

Disulfide-bonded proteins in chloroplasts from green plants exist in the envelope and the thylakoid membrane, and in the stroma and the lumen. The formation of disulfide bonds in proteins is referred to as oxidative folding and is linked to the import and folding of chloroplast proteins as well as the assembly and repair of thylakoid complexes. It is also important in the redox regulation of enzymes and signal transfer.

RECENT ADVANCES

Green-plant chloroplasts contain enzymes that can form and isomerize disulfide bonds in proteins. In Arabidopsis thaliana, four proteins are identified that are relevant for the catalysis of disulfide bond formation in chloroplast proteins. The proteins' low quantum yield of Photosystem II 1 (LQY1, At1g75690) and snowy cotyledon 2 (SCO2, At3g19220) exhibits protein disulfide isomerase activity and is suggested to function in the assembly and repair of Photosystem II (PSII), and the biogenesis of thylakoids in cotyledons, respectively. The thylakoid-located Lumen thiol oxidoreductase 1 (LTO1, At4g35760) can catalyze the formation of the disulfide bond of the extrinsic PsbO protein of PSII. In addition, the stroma-located protein disulfide isomerase PDIL1-3 (At3g54960) may have a role in oxidative folding.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Research on oxidative folding in chloroplasts plants is in an early stage and little is known about the mechanisms of disulfide bond formation in chloroplast proteins.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The close link between the import and folding of chloroplast proteins suggests that Hsp93, a component of the inner envelope's import apparatus, may have co-chaperones that can catalyze disulfide bond formation in newly imported proteins.

Effect of cargo size and shape on the transport efficiency of the bacterial Tat translocase

The Tat machinery translocates fully-folded and oligomeric substrates. The passage of large, bulky cargos across an ion-tight membrane suggests the need to match pore and cargo size, and therefore that Tat transport efficiency may depend on both cargo size and shape. A series of cargos of different sizes and shapes were generated using the natural Tat substrate pre-SufI as a base. Four (of 17) cargos transported with significant (>20% of wild-type) efficiencies. These results indicate that cargo size and shape significantly influence Tat transportability.

Energetic cost of protein import across the envelope membranes of chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are the organelles of green plants in which light energy is transduced into chemical energy, forming ATP and reduced carbon compounds upon which all life depends. The expenditure of this energy is one of the central issues of cellular metabolism. Chloroplasts contain ~3,000 proteins, among which less than 100 are typically encoded in the plastid genome. The rest are encoded in the nuclear genome, synthesized in the cytosol, and posttranslationally imported into the organelle in an energy-dependent process. We report here a measurement of the amount of ATP hydrolyzed to import a protein across the chloroplast envelope membranes--only the second complete accounting of the cost in Gibbs free energy of protein transport to be undertaken. Using two different precursors prepared by three distinct techniques, we show that the import of a precursor protein into chloroplasts is accompanied by the hydrolysis of ~650 ATP molecules. This translates to a ΔG(protein) (transport) of some 27,300 kJ/mol protein imported. We estimate that protein import across the plastid envelope membranes consumes ~0.6% of the total light-saturated energy output of the organelle.

Role of vesicle-inducing protein in plastids 1 in cpTat transport at the thylakoid

VIPP1 has been shown to be required for the proper formation of thylakoid membranes. However, studies on VIPP1 itself, as well as on PspA, its bacterial homolog, suggests that this protein may be involved in a number of additional functions, including protein translocation. The role of VIPP1 in protein translocation in the chloroplast has not been investigated. To this end, we conducted in vitro thylakoid protein transport assays to look at the effect of VIPP1 on the cpTat pathway, which is one of three translocation pathways found in both the chloroplast and its bacterial progenitor. We found that VIPP1 does indeed enhance protein transport through the cpTat pathway by up to 100%. The VIPP1 effect on cpTat activity occurs without interacting with the substrates or components of the translocon, and does not alter the energy potentials driving this translocation pathway. Instead, VIPP1 greatly enhances the amount of substrate bound productively to the thylakoids. Moreover, the presence of increasing VIPP1 concentrations in the reactions resulted in greater interactions between thylakoid membranes. Taken together, these results demonstrate a stimulatory role for VIPP1 in cpTat transport by enhancement of substrate binding, probably to the membrane lipid regions of the thylakoid. We propose a model in which VIPP1 facilitates reorganization of the thylakoid structure to increase substrate access to productive binding regions of the membrane as an early step in the cpTat pathway.

Molecular chaperone involvement in chloroplast protein import

Chloroplasts are organelles of endosymbiotic origin that perform essential functions in plants. They contain about 3000 different proteins, the vast majority of which are nucleus-encoded, synthesized in precursor form in the cytosol, and transported into the chloroplasts post-translationally. These preproteins are generally imported via envelope complexes termed TOC and TIC (Translocon at the Outer/Inner envelope membrane of Chloroplasts). They must navigate different cellular and organellar compartments (e.g., the cytosol, the outer and inner envelope membranes, the intermembrane space, and the stroma) before arriving at their final destination. It is generally considered that preproteins are imported in a largely unfolded state, and the whole process is energy-dependent. Several chaperones and cochaperones have been found to mediate different stages of chloroplast import, in similar fashion to chaperone involvement in mitochondrial import. Cytosolic factors such as Hsp90, Hsp70 and 14-3-3 may assist preproteins to reach the TOC complex at the chloroplast surface, preventing their aggregation or degradation. Chaperone involvement in the intermembrane space has also been proposed, but remains uncertain. Preprotein translocation is completed at the trans side of the inner membrane by ATP-driven motor complexes. A stromal Hsp100-type chaperone, Hsp93, cooperates with Tic110 and Tic40 in one such motor complex, while stromal Hsp70 is proposed to act in a second, parallel complex. Upon arrival in the stroma, chaperones (e.g., Hsp70, Cpn60, cpSRP43) also contribute to the folding, assembly or onward intraorganellar guidance of the proteins. In this review, we focus on chaperone involvement during preprotein translocation at the chloroplast envelope. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Protein Import and Quality Control in Mitochondria and Plastids.

The Tat-dependent protein translocation pathway

The twin-arginine translocation (Tat) pathway is found in bacteria, archaea, and plant chloroplasts, where it is dedicated to the transmembrane transport of fully folded proteins. These proteins contain N-terminal signal peptides with a specific Tat-system binding motif that is recognized by the transport machinery. In contrast to other protein transport systems, the Tat system consists of multiple copies of only two or three usually small (∼8–30 kDa) membrane proteins that oligomerize to two large complexes that transiently interact during translocation. Only one of these complexes includes a polytopic membrane protein, TatC. The other complex consists of TatA. Tat systems of plants, proteobacteria, and several other phyla contain a third component, TatB. TatB is evolutionarily and structurally related to TatA and usually forms tight complexes with TatC. Minimal two-component Tat systems lacking TatB are found in many bacterial and archaeal phyla. They consist of a ‘bifunctional’ TatA that also covers TatB functionalities, and a TatC. Recent insights into the structure and interactions of the Tat proteins have various important implications.

Twin arginine translocation (Tat)-dependent protein transport: the passenger protein participates in the initial membrane binding step

The initial step in twin arginine translocation (Tat)-dependent thylakoid transport of the 16/23 chimera is the interaction of the protein with the lipid bilayer. It results in the formation of the early translocation intermediate Ti-1, which is represented by a protease-protected fragment of 14 kDa. Cys-scanning mutagenesis in combination with in thylakoido and liposome insertion assays was used to precisely map this membrane-interacting and protease-protected fragment within the 16/23 chimera. The fragment comprises 124 residues, which are provided both by the transit peptide (31 residues) and the mature protein (93 residues), demonstrating that the passenger protein directly participates in membrane binding. The implications of this finding on the mechanism of Tat-dependent protein transport are discussed.

The Tat Protein Export Pathway

Proteins that reside partially or completely outside the bacterial cytoplasm require specialized pathways to facilitate their localization. Globular proteins that function in the periplasm must be translocated across the hydrophobic barrier of the inner membrane. While the Sec pathway transports proteins in a predominantly unfolded conformation, the Tat pathway exports folded protein substrates. Protein transport by the Tat machinery is powered solely by the transmembrane proton gradient, and there is no requirement for nucleotide triphosphate hydrolysis. Proteins are targeted to the Tat machinery by N-terminal signal peptides that contain a consensus twin arginine motif. In Escherichia coli and Salmonella there are approximately thirty proteins with twin arginine signal peptides that are transported by the Tat pathway. The majority of these bind complex redox cofactors such as iron sulfur clusters or the molybdopterin cofactor. Here we describe what is known about Tat substrates in E. coli and Salmonella, the function and mechanism of Tat protein export, and how the cofactor insertion step is coordinated to ensure that only correctly assembled substrates are targeted to the Tat machinery.

Cell adhesion molecule DdCAD-1 is imported into contractile vacuoles by membrane invagination in a Ca2+- and conformation-dependent manner

The cadA gene in Dictyostelium encodes a Ca(2+)-dependent cell adhesion molecule DdCAD-1 that contains two beta-sandwich domains. DdCAD-1 is synthesized in the cytoplasm as a soluble protein and then transported by contractile vacuoles to the plasma membrane for surface presentation or secretion. DdCAD-1-green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion protein was expressed in cadA-null cells for further investigation of this unconventional protein transport pathway. Both morphological and biochemical characterizations showed that DdCAD-1-GFP was imported into contractile vacuoles. Time-lapse microscopy of transfectants revealed the transient appearance of DdCAD-1-GFP-filled vesicular structures in the lumen of contractile vacuoles, suggesting that DdCAD-1 could be imported by invagination of contractile vacuole membrane. To assess the structural requirements in this transport process, the N-terminal and C-terminal domains of DdCAD-1 were expressed separately in cells as GFP fusion proteins. Both fusion proteins failed to enter the contractile vacuole, suggesting that the integrity of DdCAD-1 is required for import. Such a requirement was also observed in in vitro reconstitution assays using His(6)-tagged fusion proteins and purified contractile vacuoles. Import of DdCAD-1 was compromised when two of its three Ca(2+)-binding sites were mutated, indicating a role for Ca(2+) in the import process. Spectral analysis showed that mutations in the Ca(2+)-binding sites resulted in subtle conformational changes. Indeed, proteins with altered conformation failed to enter the contractile vacuole, suggesting that the import signal is somehow integrated in the three-dimensional structure of DdCAD-1.

Tat subunit stoichiometry in Arabidopsis thaliana challenges the proposed function of TatA as the translocation pore

The twin arginine translocation (Tat) machinery which is capable of transporting folded proteins across lipid bilayers operates in the thylakoid membrane of plant chloroplasts as well as in the cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria. It is composed of three integral membrane proteins (TatA, TatB, and TatC) which form heteromeric complexes of high molecular weight that accomplish binding and transport of substrates carrying Tat pathway-specific signal peptides. Western analyses using affinity purified antibodies showed in both, juvenile and adult tissue from Arabidopsis thaliana, an approximately equimolar ratio of the TatB and TatC components, whereas TatA was detectable only in minor amounts. Upon Blue Native-PAGE, TatB and TatC were found in four heteromeric TatB/C complexes possessing molecular weights of approximately 310, 370, 560 and 620 kDa, respectively, while TatA was detected only in a molecular weight range below 200 kDa. The implications of these findings on the currently existing models explaining the mechanism of Tat transport are discussed.

A stromal pool of TatA promotes Tat-dependent protein transport across the thylakoid membrane

In chloroplasts and bacteria, the Tat (twin-arginine translocation) system is engaged in transporting folded passenger proteins across the thylakoid and cytoplasmic membranes, respectively. To date, three membrane proteins (TatA, TatB, and TatC) have been identified to be essential for Tat-dependent protein translocation in the plant system, whereas soluble factors seem not to be required. In contrast, in the bacterial system, several cytosolic chaperones were described to be involved in Tat transport processes. Therefore, we have examined whether stromal or peripherally associated membrane proteins also play a role in Tat transport across the thylakoid membrane. Analyzing both authentic precursors as well as the chimeric 16/23 protein, which allows us to study each step of the translocation process individually, we demonstrate that a soluble form of TatA is present in the chloroplast stroma, which significantly improves the efficiency of Tat-dependent protein transport. Furthermore, this soluble TatA is able to reconstitute the Tat transport properties of thylakoid membranes that are transport-incompetent due to extraction with solutions of chaotropic salts.

Protein trafficking to plastids: one theme, many variations

Plastids are a diverse group of essential organelles in plants that include chloroplasts. The biogenesis and maintenance of these organelles relies on the import of thousands of nucleus-encoded proteins. The complexity of plastid structure has resulted in the evolution of at least four general import pathways that target proteins into and across the double membrane of the plastid envelope. Several of these pathways can be further divided into specialty pathways that mediate and regulate the import of specific classes of proteins. The co-ordination of import by these specialized pathways with changes in gene expression is critical for plastid and plant development. Moreover, protein import is acutely regulated in response to physiological and metabolic changes within the cell. In the present review we summarize the current knowledge of the mechanism of import via these pathways and highlight the regulatory mechanisms that integrate the plastid protein-trafficking pathways with the developmental and metabolic state of the plant.

Targeting of nucleus-encoded proteins to chloroplasts in plants

Most chloroplast proteins are encoded in the nucleus and synthesized on free, cytosolic ribosomes in precursor form. Each precursor has an amino-terminal extension called a transit peptide, which directs the protein through a post-translational targeting pathway and is removed upon arrival inside the organelle. This 'protein import' process is mediated by the coordinate action of two multiprotein complexes, one in each of the envelope membranes: the TOC and TIC (Translocon at the Outer/ Inner envelope membrane of Chloroplasts) machines. Many components of these complexes have been identified biochemically in pea; these include transit peptide receptors, channel proteins, and molecular chaperones. Intriguingly, the Arabidopsis genome encodes multiple, homologous genes for receptor components of the TOC complex. Careful analysis indicated that the different receptor isoforms operate in different import pathways with distinct precursor recognition specificities. These 'substrate-specific' import pathways might play a role in the differentiation of different plastid types, and/or act to prevent deleterious competition effects between abundant and nonabundant precursors. Until recently, all proteins destined for internal chloroplast compartments were thought to possess a cleavable transit peptide, and to engage the TOC/TIC machinery. New studies using proteomics and other approaches have revealed that this is far from true. Remarkably, a significant number of chloroplast proteins are transported via a pathway that involves the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Other recent reports have elucidated an intriguing array of protein targeting routes leading to the envelope membranes themselves.

Polyphenol oxidase can cross thylakoids by both the Tat and the Sec-dependent pathways: a putative role for two stromal processing sites

Polyphenol oxidase (PPO; EC 1.10.3.2 or EC 1.14.18.1), a thylakoid-lumen protein encoded by a nuclear gene, plays a role in the defense of plants against both herbivores and pathogens. Although previously reported to be a Tat (twin-arginine-dependent translocation) protein, the import of PPO by isolated chloroplasts was inhibited by azide, a diagnostic inhibitor of the Sec-dependent pathway. Import of PPO inhibited thylakoid translocation of a Tat protein and did not affect translocation of Sec-dependent proteins. In contrast, a pre-accumulated iPPO competed with Sec-dependent but not with Tat proteins. A previously reported second processing step in the stroma removes a twin-Arg that is part of a 'Sec-avoidance' motif in the thylakoid targeting domain of PPO. When the second processing site was mutated, the import of the resulting precursor showed Sec-dependent characteristics. The PPO transit peptide could drive thylakoid translocation of a Tat protein in the dark. Azide inhibited the secretion of a PPO intermediate that lacks a twin-Arg to the periplasm of Escherichia coli, but had no effect on the export of the intermediate containing the twin-Arg. PPO is synthesized in plants in response to wound and pathogen-related signals and it is possible that when the Tat pathway is unable to translocate adequate amounts of newly synthesized PPO, translocation is diverted to the Sec-dependent pathway by processing the intermediate at the second site and removing the twin-Arg.

The 1.38 A crystal structure of DmsD protein from Salmonella typhimurium, a proofreading chaperone on the Tat pathway

The DmsD protein is necessary for the biogenesis of dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) reductase in many prokaryotes. It performs a critical chaperone function initiated through its binding to the twin-arginine signal peptide of DmsA, the catalytic subunit of DMSO reductase. Upon binding to DmsD, DmsA is translocated to the periplasm via the so-called twin-arginine translocation (Tat) pathway. Here we report the 1.38 A crystal structure of the protein DmsD from Salmonella typhimurium and compare it with a close functional homolog, TorD. DmsD has an all-alpha fold structure with a notable helical extension located at its N-terminus with two solvent exposed hydrophobic residues. A major difference between DmsD and TorD is that TorD structure is a domain-swapped dimer, while DmsD exists as a monomer. Nevertheless, these two proteins have a number of common features suggesting they function by using similar mechanisms. A possible signal peptide-binding site is proposed based on structural similarities. Computational analysis was used to identify a potential GTP binding pocket on similar surfaces of DmsD and TorD structures.

Translocation of aprotinin, a therapeutic protease inhibitor, into the thylakoid lumen of genetically engineered tobacco chloroplasts

Aprotinin, a bovine protease inhibitor of important therapeutic value, was expressed in tobacco plastid transformants. This disulphide bond-containing protein was targeted to the lumen of thylakoids using signal peptides derived from nuclear genes which encode lumenal proteins. Translocation was attempted via either the general secretion (Sec) or the twin-arginine translocation (Tat) pathway. In both cases, this strategy allowed the production of genuine aprotinin with its N-terminal arginine residue. The recombinant protease inhibitor was efficiently secreted within the lumen of thylakoids, accumulated in older leaves and was bound to trypsin, suggesting that the three disulphide bonds of aprotinin are correctly folded and paired in this chloroplast compartment. Mass spectrometric analysis indicated that translocation via the Sec pathway, unlike the Tat pathway, led predominantly to an oxidized protein. Translocation via the Tat pathway was linked to a slightly decreased growth rate, a pale-green leaf phenotype and supplementary expression products associated with the thylakoids.

The twin-arginine transport system: moving folded proteins across membranes

The Tat (twin-arginine transport) pathway is a protein-targeting system dedicated to the transmembrane translocation of fully folded proteins. This system is highly prevalent in the cytoplasmic membranes of bacteria and archaea, and is also found in the thylakoid membranes of plant chloroplasts and possibly also in the inner membrane of plant mitochondria. Proteins are targeted to a membrane-embedded Tat translocase by specialized N-terminal twin-arginine signal peptides bearing an SRRXFLK amino acid motif. The genes encoding components of the Tat translocase were discovered approx. 10 years ago, and, since then, research in this area has expanded on a global scale. In this review, the key discoveries in this field are summarized, and recent studies of bacterial twin-arginine signal-peptide-binding proteins are discussed.

Translocation of a phycoerythrin alpha subunit across five biological membranes

Cryptophytes, unicellular algae, evolved by secondary endosymbiosis and contain plastids surrounded by four membranes. In contrast to cyanobacteria and red algae, their phycobiliproteins do not assemble into phycobilisomes and are located within the thylakoid lumen instead of the stroma. We identified two gene families encoding phycoerythrin alpha and light-harvesting complex proteins from an expressed sequence tag library of the cryptophyte Guillardia theta. The proteins bear a bipartite topogenic signal responsible for the transport of nuclear encoded proteins via the ER into the plastid. Analysis of the phycoerythrin alpha sequences revealed that more than half of them carry an additional, third topogenic signal comprising a twin arginine motif, which is indicative of Tat (twin arginine transport)-specific targeting signals. We performed import studies with several derivatives of one member using a diatom transformation system, as well as intact chloroplasts and thylakoid vesicles isolated from pea. We demonstrated the different targeting properties of each individual part of the tripartite leader and show that phycoerythrin alpha is transported across the thylakoid membrane into the thylakoid lumen and protease-protected. Furthermore, we showed that thylakoid transport of phycoerythrin alpha takes place by the Tat pathway even if the 36 amino acid long bipartite topogenic signal precedes the actual twin arginine signal. This is the first experimental evidence of a protein being targeted across five biological membranes.

The chloroplast Tat pathway utilizes the transmembrane electric potential as an energy source

The thylakoid membrane, located inside the chloroplast, requires proteins transported across it for plastid biogenesis and functional photosynthetic electron transport. The chloroplast Tat translocator found on thylakoids transports proteins from the plastid stroma to the thylakoid lumen. Previous studies have shown that the chloroplast Tat pathway is independent of NTP hydrolysis as an energy source and instead depends on the thylakoid transmembrane proton gradient to power protein translocation. Because of its localization on the same membrane as the proton motive force-dependent F(0)F(1) ATPase, we believed that the chloroplast Tat pathway also made use of the thylakoid electric potential for transporting substrates. By adjusting the rate of photosynthetic proton pumping and by utilizing ionophores, we show that the chloroplast Tat pathway can also utilize the transmembrane electric potential for protein transport. Our findings indicate that the chloroplast Tat pathway is likely dependent on the total protonmotive force (PMF) as an energy source. As a protonmotive-dependent device, certain predictions can be made about structural features expected to be found in the Tat translocon, specifically, the presence of a proton well, a device in the membrane that converts electrical potential into chemical potential.

Prerequisites for terminal processing of thylakoidal Tat substrates

In bacteria and chloroplasts, the Tat (twin arginine translocation) system is capable of translocating folded passenger proteins across the cytoplasmic and thylakoidal membranes, respectively. Transport depends on signal peptides that are characterized by a twin pair of arginine residues. The signal peptides are generally removed after transport by specific processing peptidases, namely the leader peptidase and the thylakoidal processing peptidase. To gain insight into the prerequisites for such signal peptide removal, we mutagenized the vicinity of thylakoidal processing peptidase cleavage sites in several thylakoidal Tat substrates. Analysis of these mutants in thylakoid transport experiments showed that the amino acid composition of both the C-terminal segment of the signal peptide and the N-terminal part of the mature protein plays an important role in the maturation process. Efficient removal of the signal peptide requires the presence of charged or polar residues within at least one of those regions, whereas increased hydrophobicity impairs the process. The relative extent of this effect varies to some degree depending on the nature of the precursor protein. Unprocessed transport intermediates with fully translocated passenger proteins are found in membrane complexes of high molecular mass, which presumably represent Tat complexes, as well as free in the lipid bilayer. This seems to indicate that the Tat substrates can be laterally released from the complexes prior to processing and that membrane transport and terminal processing of Tat substrates are independent processes.

A scFv antibody mutant isolated in a genetic screen for improved export via the twin arginine transporter pathway exhibits faster folding

Proteins destined for export across the cytoplasmic membrane via the post-translational Sec-dependent route have to be maintained in a largely unfolded state within the cytoplasm. In sharp contrast, only proteins that have folded into a native-like state within the cytoplasm are competent for export via the twin arginine translocation (Tat) pathway. Proteins that contain disulfide bonds, such as scFv antibody fragments, can be translocated via Tat only when expressed in Escherichia coli trxB gor mutant strains having an oxidizing cytoplasm. However, export is poor with the majority of the protein accumulating in the cytoplasm and only a fraction exported to the periplasmic space. Using a high throughput fluorescence screen, we isolated a mutant of the anti-digoxin 26-10 scFv from a large library of random mutants that is exported with a higher yield into the periplasm. In vitro refolding experiments revealed that the mutant scFv exhibits a 250% increase in the rate constant of the critical second phase of folding. This result suggests that Tat export competence is related to the protein folding rate and could be exploited for the isolation of faster folding protein mutants.

Mechanisms of protein import into thylakoids of chloroplasts

The thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts contains the major photosynthetic complexes, which consist of several either nuclear or chloroplast encoded subunits. The biogenesis of these thylakoid membrane complexes requires coordinated transport and subsequent assembly of the subunits into functional complexes. Nuclear-encoded thylakoid proteins are first imported into the chloroplast and then directed to the thylakoid using different sorting mechanisms. The cpSec pathway and the cpTat pathway are mainly involved in the transport of lumenal proteins, whereas the spontaneous pathway and the cpSRP pathway are used for the insertion of integral membrane proteins into the thylakoid membrane. While cpSec-, cpTat- and cpSRP-mediated targeting can be classified as 'assisted' mechanisms involving numerous components, 'unassisted' spontaneous insertion does not require additional targeting factors. However, even the assisted pathways differ fundamentally with respect to stromal targeting factors, the composition of the translocase and energy requirements.

Unassisted membrane insertion as the initial step in DeltapH/Tat-dependent protein transport

In the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts as well as in the cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria, the DeltapH/Tat-dependent protein transport pathway is responsible for the translocation of folded proteins. Using the chimeric 16/23 protein as model substrate in thylakoid transport experiments, we dissected the transport process into several distinct steps that are characterized by specific integral translocation intermediates. Formation of the early translocation intermediate Ti-1, which still exposes the N and the C terminus to the stroma, is observed with thylakoids pretreated with (i) solutions of chaotropic salts or alkaline pH, (ii) protease, or (iii) antibodies raised against TatA, TatB, or TatC. Membrane insertion takes place even into liposomes, demonstrating that proteinaceous components are not required. This suggests that Tat-dependent transport may be initiated by the unassisted insertion of the substrate into the lipid bilayer, and that interaction with the Tat translocase takes place only in later stages of the process.