The role of the kinesin motor KipA in microtubule organization and polarized growth of Aspergillus nidulans

Global transcriptome changes during growth of a novel Penicillium coffeae isolate on the wheat stripe rust fungus, Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici

Wheat stripe rust caused by the fungus Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst) is currently the most destructive disease of wheat. The major control methods which include the deployment of resistant wheat cultivars and application of chemical fungicides are losing efficiency as the fungus evolves. Natural antagonists of Pst may be an avenue for alternative and environmentally sustainable control of the disease in the field. Here we describe a novel fungus found growing on Pst pustules. We identified the fungus as a novel isolate of the plant endophyte Penicillium coffeae. We present a high-quality reference genome and a comparative transcriptomic analysis used to investigate how the fungus deploys its genes during growth amongst Pst spores. The gene content of the P. coffeae ANU01 genome is suggestive of a generalist that makes use of diverse substrates. An abundance of genes related to lipid, amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism indicate that P. coffeae ANU01 has evolved the ability to exploit nutrient stores in Pst urediniospores. P. coffeae ANU01 deploys a number of biosynthetic gene clusters during growth on Pst spores, potentially to inhibit urediniospores germination and halt defence responses. A number of genes encoding carbohydrate active enzymes are also highly upregulated, suggesting targeting and degradation of Pst urediniospores structures. Alongside carbohydrates, P. coffeae ANU01 appears to target spore lipids as a nutrient source, secreting several highly upregulated lipases. Our findings broaden the understanding of growth associated with rust spores as an evolutionary strategy and provide insight into the genes potentially required for this process.

Calcium-Binding Protein and Polymorphism in Musa spp. Somaclones Resistant to Fusarium oxysporum

The fresh fruits of 'Grande Naine' (Cavendish AAA-Musa spp.) dominate the world market, especially in countries with a population in a situation of social vulnerability. However, Fusarium wilt, caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense race 4 Subtropical (Foc ST4), emerges as a serious threat to banana production, requiring the development of resistant cultivars based on biotechnological strategies, such as the induction of mutation in tissue culture. This study aimed to identify and characterize genetic variation in somaclones resistant to Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense subtropical race 4 (Foc ST4), derived from 'Grand Naine' bananas, by molecular markers based on retrotransposons IRAP (Inter-retrotransposon Amplified Polymorphism) and REMAP (Retrotransposon-Microsatellite Amplified Polymorphism). Nine combinations of IRAP and six combinations of REMAP primers were used. The low number of polymorphic bands did not allow for genetic diversity studies; however, ten polymorphic bands between the somaclones and control were sequenced. Of these, three presented good base calling and were aligned, namely, 1AF, 2AF, and 3AF bands. Only the 1AF band presented function related to stress response with homology to a calcium-binding protein. These proteins act early in plant infection as secondary messengers activated by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), initiating the cascade of plant defense signals. The fact that this band is present in all somaclones reinforces previous assessments of their resistance to Foc ST4. The use of markers IRAP and REMAP produced polymorphic bands that can, through future primer design and field validations, accelerate the identification of resistant banana genotypes for use in banana genetic breeding programs.

Harnessing Fungi Signaling in Living Composites

Signaling pathways in fungi offer a profound avenue for harnessing cellular communication and have garnered considerable interest in biomaterial engineering. Fungi respond to environmental stimuli through intricate signaling networks involving biochemical and electrical pathways, yet deciphering these mechanisms remains a challenge. In this review, an overview of fungal biology and their signaling pathways is provided, which can be activated in response to external stimuli and direct fungal growth and orientation. By examining the hyphal structure and the pathways involved in fungal signaling, the current state of recording fungal electrophysiological signals as well as the landscape of fungal biomaterials is explored. Innovative applications are highlighted, from sustainable materials to biomonitoring systems, and an outlook on the future of harnessing fungi signaling in living composites is provided.

Live cell imaging of β-tubulin mRNA reveals spatiotemporal expression dynamics in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus oryzae

In filamentous fungi, microtubules are important for polar growth and morphological maintenance and serve as rails for intracellular trafficking. The molecular mechanisms associated with microtubules have been analyzed. However, little is known about when and where tubulin, a component of microtubules, is biosynthesized in multinuclear and multicellular filamentous fungi. In this study, we visualized microtubules based on the enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP)-labeled α-tubulin and β-tubulin mRNA tagged by the EGFP-mediated MS2 system in living yellow Koji mold Aspergillus oryzae cells in order to understand the spatiotemporal production mechanism of tubulin. We found that mRNA of btuA, encoding for β-tubulin, localized at dot-like structures through the apical, middle and basal regions of the hyphal cells. In addition, some btuA mRNA dots showed microtubule-dependent motor protein-like dynamics in the cells. Furthermore, it was found that btuA mRNA dots were decreased in the cytoplasm just before mitosis but increased immediately after mitosis, followed by a gradual decrease. In summary, the localization and abundance of β-tubulin mRNA is spatiotemporally regulated in living A. oryzae hyphal cells.

Tools for live-cell imaging of cytoskeletal and nuclear behavior in the unconventional yeast, Aureobasidium pullulans

Aureobasidium pullulans is a ubiquitous fungus with a wide variety of morphologies and growth modes including "typical" single-budding yeast, and interestingly, larger multinucleate yeast than can make multiple buds in a single cell cycle. The study of A. pullulans promises to uncover novel cell biology, but currently tools are lacking to achieve this goal. Here, we describe initial components of a cell biology toolkit for A. pullulans, which is used to express and image fluorescent probes for nuclei as well as components of the cytoskeleton. These tools allowed live-cell imaging of the multinucleate and multibudding cycles, revealing highly synchronous mitoses in multinucleate yeast that occur in a semiopen manner with an intact but permeable nuclear envelope. These findings open the door to using this ubiquitous polyextremotolerant fungus as a model for evolutionary cell biology.

The Microtubule End Binding Protein Mal3 Is Essential for the Dynamic Assembly of Microtubules during Magnaporthe oryzae Growth and Pathogenesis

Cytoskeletal microtubules (MTs) play crucial roles in many aspects of life processes in eukaryotic organisms. They dynamically assemble physiologically important MT arrays under different cell conditions. Currently, aspects of MT assembly underlying the development and pathogenesis of the model plant pathogenic fungus Magnaporthe oryzae (M. oryzae) are unclear. In this study, we characterized the MT plus end binding protein MoMal3 in M. oryzae. We found that knockout of MoMal3 results in defects in hyphal polar growth, appressorium-mediated host penetration and nucleus division. Using high-resolution live-cell imaging, we further found that the MoMal3 mutant assembled a rigid MT in parallel with the MT during hyphal polar growth, the cage-like network in the appressorium and the stick-like spindle in nuclear division. These aberrant MT organization patterns in the MoMal3 mutant impaired actin-based cell growth and host infection. Taken together, these findings showed that M. oryzae relies on MoMal3 to assemble elaborate MT arrays for growth and infection. The results also revealed the assembly mode of MTs in M. oryzae, indicating that MTs are pivotal for M. oryzae growth and host infection and may be new targets for devastating fungus control.

Elucidating the Obligate Nature and Biological Capacity of an Invasive Fungal Corn Pathogen

Tar spot is a devasting corn disease caused by the obligate fungal pathogen Phyllachora maydis. Since its initial identification in the United States in 2015, P. maydis has become an increasing threat to corn production. Despite this, P. maydis has remained largely understudied at the molecular level, due to difficulties surrounding its obligate lifestyle. Here, we generated a significantly improved P. maydis nuclear and mitochondrial genome, using a combination of long- and short-read technologies, and also provide the first transcriptomic analysis of primary tar spot lesions. Our results show that P. maydis is deficient in inorganic nitrogen utilization, is likely heterothallic, and encodes for significantly more protein-coding genes, including secreted enzymes and effectors, than previous determined. Furthermore, our expression analysis suggests that, following primary tar spot lesion formation, P. maydis might reroute carbon flux away from DNA replication and cell division pathways and towards pathways previously implicated in having significant roles in pathogenicity, such as autophagy and secretion. Together, our results identified several highly expressed unique secreted factors that likely contribute to host recognition and subsequent infection, greatly increasing our knowledge of the biological capacity of P. maydis, which have much broader implications for mitigating tar spot of corn. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Septum-associated microtubule organizing centers within conidia support infectious development by the blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae

Cytoplasmic microtubule arrays play important and diverse roles within fungal cells, including serving as molecular highways for motor-driven organelle motility. While the dynamic plus ends of cytoplasmic microtubules are free to explore the cytoplasm through their stochastic growth and shrinkage, their minus ends are nucleated at discrete organizing centers, composed of large multi-subunit protein complexes. The location and composition of these microtubule organizing centers varies depending on genus, cell type, and in some instances cell-cycle stage. Despite their obvious importance, our understanding of the nature, diversity, and regulation of microtubule organizing centers in fungi remains incomplete. Here, using three-color fluorescence microscopy based live-cell imaging, we investigate the organization and dynamic behavior of the microtubule cytoskeleton within infection-related cell types of the filamentous fungus,Magnaporthe oryzae, a highly destructive pathogen of rice and wheat. We provide data to support the idea that cytoplasmic microtubules are nucleated at septa, rather than at nuclear spindle pole bodies, within the three-celled blast conidium, and provide new insight into remodeling of the microtubule cytoskeleton during nuclear division and inheritance. Lastly, we provide a more complete picture of the architecture and subcellular organization of the prototypical blast appressorium, a specialized pressure-generating cell type used to invade host tissue. Taken together, our study provides new insight into microtubule nucleation, organization, and dynamics in specialized and differentiated fungal cell types.

A Kinesin Vdkin2 Required for Vacuole Formation, Mycelium Growth, and Penetration Structure Formation of Verticillium dahliae

The soil-borne vascular fungus Verticillium dahliae infects hundreds of dicotyledonous plants, causing severe wilt diseases. During the initial colonization, V. dahliae develops a penetration peg to enable infection of cotton roots. In some phytopathogenic fungi, vacuoles play a critical role in normal formation of the infection structure. Kinesin 2 protein is associated with vacuole formation in Ustilago maydis. To identify the function of vacuoles in the V. dahliae infection structure, we identified VdKin2, an ortholog of kinesin 2, in V. dahliae and investigated its function through gene knockout. VdKin2 mutants showed severe defects in virulence and were suppressed during initial infection and root colonization based on observation of green fluorescent protein-labeled V. dahliae. We also found that deletion of VdKin2 compromised penetration peg formation and the derived septin neck. Disruption strains were viable and showed normal microsclerotia formation, whereas mycelium growth and conidial production were reduced, with shorter and more branched hyphae. Furthermore, the VdKin2 mutant, unlike wild-type V. dahliae, lacked a large basal vacuole, accompanied by a failure to generate concentrated lipid droplets. Taken together, VdKin2 regulates vacuole formation by V. dahliae, which is required for conidiation, mycelium growth, and penetration structure formation during initial plant root infection.

Kinesin Motors in the Filamentous Basidiomycetes in Light of the Schizophyllum commune Genome

Kinesins are essential motor molecules of the microtubule cytoskeleton. All eukaryotic organisms have several genes encoding kinesin proteins, which are necessary for various cell biological functions. During the vegetative growth of filamentous basidiomycetes, the apical cells of long leading hyphae have microtubules extending toward the tip. The reciprocal exchange and migration of nuclei between haploid hyphae at mating is also dependent on cytoskeletal structures, including the microtubules and their motor molecules. In dikaryotic hyphae, resulting from a compatible mating, the nuclear location, synchronous nuclear division, and extensive nuclear separation at telophase are microtubule-dependent processes that involve unidentified molecular motors. The genome of Schizophyllum commune is analyzed as an example of a species belonging to the Basidiomycota subclass, Agaricomycetes. In this subclass, the investigation of cell biology is restricted to a few species. Instead, the whole genome sequences of several species are now available. The analyses of the mating type genes and the genes necessary for fruiting body formation or wood degrading enzymes in several genomes of Agaricomycetes have shown that they are controlled by comparable systems. This supports the idea that the genes regulating the cell biological process in a model fungus, such as the genes encoding kinesin motor molecules, are also functional in other filamentous Agaricomycetes.

The role of Aspergillus nidulans polo-like kinase PlkA in microtubule-organizing center control

Centrosomes are important microtubule-organizing centers (MTOC) in animal cells. In addition, non-centrosomal MTOCs (ncMTOCs) have been described in many cell types. The functional analogs of centrosomes in fungi are the spindle pole bodies (SPBs). In Aspergillus nidulans, additional MTOCs have been discovered at septa (sMTOC). Although the core components are conserved in both MTOCs, their composition and organization are different and dynamic. Here, we show that the polo-like kinase PlkA binds the γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC) receptor protein ApsB and contributes to targeting ApsB to both MTOCs. PlkA coordinates the activities of the SPB outer plaque and the sMTOC. PlkA kinase activity was required for astral MT formation involving ApsB recruitment. PlkA also interacted with the γ-TuRC inner plaque receptor protein PcpA. Mitosis was delayed without PlkA, and the PlkA protein was required for proper mitotic spindle morphology, although this function was independent of its catalytic activity. Our results suggest that the polo-like kinase is a regulator of MTOC activities and acts as a scaffolding unit through interaction with γ-TuRC receptors.

Tracking Fungal Growth: Establishment of Arp1 as a Marker for Polarity Establishment and Active Hyphal Growth in Filamentous Ascomycetes

Polar growth is a key characteristic of all filamentous fungi. It allows these eukaryotes to not only effectively explore organic matter but also interact within its own colony, mating partners, and hosts. Therefore, a detailed understanding of the dynamics in polar growth establishment and maintenance is crucial for several fields of fungal research. We developed a new marker protein, the actin-related protein 1 (Arp1) fused to red and green fluorescent proteins, which allows for the tracking of polar axis establishment and active hyphal growth in microscopy approaches. To exclude a probable redundancy with known polarity markers, we compared the localizations of the Spitzenkörper (SPK) and Arp1 using an FM4-64 staining approach. As we show in applications with the coprophilous fungus Sordaria macrospora and the hemibiotrophic plant pathogen Colletotrichum graminicola, the monitoring of Arp1 can be used for detailed studies of hyphal growth dynamics and ascospore germination, the interpretation of chemotropic growth processes, and the tracking of elongating penetration pegs into plant material. Since the Arp1 marker showed the same dynamics in both fungi tested, we believe this marker can be broadly applied in fungal research to study the manifold polar growth processes determining fungal life.

Application of PALM Superresolution Microscopy to the Analysis of Microtubule-Organizing Centers (MTOCs) in Aspergillus nidulans

Photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM), one of the super resolution microscopy methods improving the resolution limit to 20 nm, allows the detection of single molecules in complex protein structures in living cells. Microtubule-organizing centres (MTOCs) are large, multisubunit protein complexes, required for microtubule polymerization. The prominent MTOC in higher eukaryotes is the centrosome, and its functional ortholog in fungi is the spindle-pole body (SPB). There is ample evidence that besides centrosomes other MTOCs are important in eukaryotic cells. The filamentous ascomycetous fungus Aspergillus nidulans is a model organism, with hyphae consisting of multinucleate compartments separated by septa. In A. nidulans, besides the SPBs, a second type of MTOCs was discovered at septa (called septal MTOCs, sMTOC). All the MTOC components appear as big dots at SPBs and sMTOCs when tagged with a fluorescent protein and observed with conventional fluorescence microscopy due to the diffraction barrier. In this chapter, we describe the application of PALM in quantifying the numbers of individual proteins at both MTOC sites in A. nidulans and provide evidence that the composition of MTOCs is highly dynamic and dramatically changes during the cell cycle.

The splicing-factor Prp40 affects dynein-dynactin function in Aspergillus nidulans

The multi-component cytoplasmic dynein transports cellular cargoes with the help of another multi-component complex dynactin, but we do not know enough about factors that may affect the assembly and functions of these proteins. From a genetic screen for mutations affecting early-endosome distribution in Aspergillus nidulans, we identified the prp40A^L438* mutation in Prp40A, a homologue of Prp40, an essential RNA-splicing factor in the budding yeast. Prp40A is not essential for splicing, although it associates with the nuclear splicing machinery. The prp40A^L438* mutant is much healthier than the ∆prp40A mutant, but both mutants exhibit similar defects in dynein-mediated early-endosome transport and nuclear distribution. In the prp40A^L438* mutant, the frequency but not the speed of dynein-mediated early-endosome transport is decreased, which correlates with a decrease in the microtubule plus-end accumulations of dynein and dynactin. Within the dynactin complex, the actin-related protein Arp1 forms a mini-filament. In a pull-down assay, the amount of Arp1 pulled down with its pointed-end protein Arp11 is lowered in the prp40A^L438* mutant. In addition, we found from published interactome data that a mammalian Prp40 homologue PRPF40A interacts with Arp1. Thus, Prp40 homologues may regulate the assembly or function of dynein–dynactin and their mechanisms deserve to be further studied.

Current views on endocytosis in filamentous fungi

Filamentous fungi grow by adding cell wall and membrane exclusively at the apex of tubular structures called hyphae. Growth was previously believed to occur only through exocytosis at the Spitzenkörper, an organised body of secretory macro- and microvesicles found only in growing hyphae. More recent work has indicated that an area deemed the sub-apical collar is enriched for endocytosis and is also required for hyphal growth. It is now generally believed that polarity of filamentous fungi is achieved through the balancing of the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis at these two areas. This review is an update on the current progress and understanding surrounding the occurrence of endocytosis and its spatial regulation as they pertain to growth and pathogenicity in filamentous fungi.

The spindle pole body of Aspergillus nidulans is asymmetrical and contains changing numbers of γ-tubulin complexes

Centrosomes are important microtubule-organizing centers (MTOCs) in animal cells. In addition, non-centrosomal MTOCs (ncMTOCs) are found in many cell types. Their composition and structure are only poorly understood. Here, we analyzed nuclear MTOCs (spindle-pole bodies, SPBs) and septal MTOCs in Aspergillus nidulans They both contain γ-tubulin along with members of the family of γ-tubulin complex proteins (GCPs). Our data suggest that SPBs consist of γ-tubulin small complexes (γ-TuSCs) at the outer plaque, and larger γ-tubulin ring complexes (γ-TuRC) at the inner plaque. We show that the MztA protein, an ortholog of the human MOZART protein (also known as MZT1), interacted with the inner plaque receptor PcpA (the homolog of fission yeast Pcp1) at SPBs, while no interaction nor colocalization was detected between MztA and the outer plaque receptor ApsB (fission yeast Mto1). Septal MTOCs consist of γ-TuRCs including MztA but are anchored through AspB and Spa18 (fission yeast Mto2). MztA is not essential for viability, although abnormal spindles were observed frequently in cells lacking MztA. Quantitative PALM imaging revealed unexpected dynamics of the protein composition of SPBs, with changing numbers of γ-tubulin complexes over time during interphase and constant numbers during mitosis.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

LIS1 regulates cargo-adapter-mediated activation of dynein by overcoming its autoinhibition in vivo

Deficiency of the LIS1 protein causes lissencephaly, a brain developmental disorder. Although LIS1 binds the microtubule motor cytoplasmic dynein and has been linked to dynein function in many experimental systems, its mechanism of action remains unclear. Here, we revealed its function in cargo-adapter-mediated dynein activation in the model organism Aspergillus nidulans Specifically, we found that overexpressed cargo adapter HookA (Hook in A. nidulans) missing its cargo-binding domain (ΔC-HookA) causes dynein and its regulator dynactin to relocate from the microtubule plus ends to the minus ends, and this relocation requires LIS1 and its binding protein, NudE. Astonishingly, the requirement for LIS1 or NudE can be bypassed to a significant extent by mutations that prohibit dynein from forming an autoinhibited conformation in which the motor domains of the dynein dimer are held close together. Our results suggest a novel mechanism of LIS1 action that promotes the switch of dynein from the autoinhibited state to an open state to facilitate dynein activation.

Off the wall: The rhyme and reason of Neurospora crassa hyphal morphogenesis

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Chitin and β-1,3-glucan synthases are transported separately in chitosomes and macrovesicles.

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Chitin synthases occupy the core of the SPK; β-1,3-glucan synthases the outer layer.

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CHS-4 arrival to the SPK and septa is CSE-7 dependent.

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Rabs YPT-1 and YPT-31 localization at the SPK mimics that of chitosomes and macrovesicles.

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The exocyst acts as a tether between the SPK outer layer vesicles and the apical PM.

The fungal cell wall building processes are the ultimate determinants of hyphal shape. In Neurospora crassa the main cell wall components, β-1,3-glucan and chitin, are synthesized by enzymes conveyed by specialized vesicles to the hyphal tip. These vesicles follow different secretory routes, which are delicately coordinated by cargo-specific Rab GTPases until their accumulation at the Spitzenkörper. From there, the exocyst mediates the docking of secretory vesicles to the plasma membrane, where they ultimately get fused. Although significant progress has been done on the cellular mechanisms that carry cell wall synthesizing enzymes from the endoplasmic reticulum to hyphal tips, a lot of information is still missing. Here, the current knowledge on N. crassa cell wall composition and biosynthesis is presented with an emphasis on the underlying molecular and cellular secretory processes.

Dual role for fungal-specific outer kinetochore proteins during cell cycle and development in Magnaporthe oryzae

The outer kinetochore DAM/DASH complex ensures proper spindle structure and chromosome segregation. While DASH complex protein requirement diverges among different yeasts, its role in filamentous fungi has not been investigated so far. We studied the dynamics and role of middle (Mis12) and outer (Dam1 and Ask1) kinetochore proteins in the filamentous fungal pathogen, Magnaporthe oryzae, which undergoes multiple cell cycle linked developmental transitions. While Mis12 was constitutively present in the nucleus, Dam1 and Ask1 were recruited only during mitosis. Although Dam1 was not required for viability, loss of its function (dam1Δ) delayed mitotic progression, resulting in impaired conidial and hyphal development. Both Dam1 and Ask1 also localised to the hyphal tips, in the form of punctae oscillating back and forth from the growing ends, suggesting that Magnaporthe DASH complex proteins may play a non-canonical role in polarised growth during interphase, in addition to their function in nuclear segregation during mitosis. Impaired appressorial (infection structure) development and host penetration in the dam1Δ mutant suggest that fungus-specific Dam1 complex proteins could be an attractive target for a novel anti-fungal strategy.

p25 of the dynactin complex plays a dual role in cargo binding and dynactin regulation

Cytoplasmic dynein binds its cargoes via the dynactin complex and cargo adapters, and the dynactin pointed-end protein p25 is required for dynein-dynactin binding to the early endosomal dynein adapter HookA (Hook in the fungus Aspergillus nidulans). However, it is unclear whether the HookA-dynein-dynactin interaction requires p27, another pointed-end protein forming heterodimers with p25 within vertebrate dynactin. Here, live-cell imaging and biochemical pulldown experiments revealed that although p27 is a component of the dynactin complex in A. nidulans, it is dispensable for dynein-dynactin to interact with ΔC-HookA (cytosolic HookA lacking its early endosome-binding C terminus) and is not critical for dynein-mediated early endosome transport. Using mutagenesis, imaging, and biochemical approaches, we found that several p25 regions are required for the ΔC-HookA-dynein-dynactin interaction, with the N terminus and loop1 being the most critical regions. Interestingly, p25 was also important for the microtubule (MT) plus-end accumulation of dynactin. This p25 function in dynactin localization also involved p25's N terminus and the loop1 critical for the ΔC-HookA-dynein-dynactin interaction. Given that dynactin's MT plus-end localization does not require HookA and that the kinesin-1-dependent plus-end accumulation of dynactin is unnecessary for the ΔC-HookA-dynein-dynactin interaction, our results indicate that p25 plays a dual role in cargo binding and dynactin regulation. As cargo adapters are implicated in dynein activation via binding to dynactin's pointed end to switch the conformation of p150, a major dynactin component, our results suggest p25 as a critical pointed-end protein involved in this process.

The actin capping protein in Aspergillus nidulans enhances dynein function without significantly affecting Arp1 filament assembly

The minus-end-directed microtubule motor cytoplasmic dynein requires the dynactin complex for in vivo functions. The backbone of the vertebrate dynactin complex is the Arp1 (actin-related protein 1) mini-filament whose barbed end binds to the heterodimeric actin capping protein. However, it is unclear whether the capping protein is a dynactin component in lower eukaryotic organisms, especially because it does not appear to be a component of the budding yeast dynactin complex. Here our biochemical data show that the capping protein is a component of the dynactin complex in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans. Moreover, deletion of the gene encoding capping protein alpha (capA) results in a defect in both nuclear distribution and early-endosome transport, two dynein-mediated processes. However, the defect in either process is less severe than that exhibited by a dynein heavy chain mutant or the ∆p25 mutant of dynactin. In addition, loss of capping protein does not significantly affect the assembly of the dynactin Arp1 filament or the formation of the dynein-dynactin-∆C-HookA (Hook in A. nidulans) complex. These results suggest that fungal capping protein is not important for Arp1 filament assembly but its presence is required for enhancing dynein function in vivo.

Secretory Vesicle Polar Sorting, Endosome Recycling and Cytoskeleton Organization Require the AP-1 Complex in Aspergillus nidulans

The AP-1 complex is essential for membrane protein traffic via its role in the pinching-off and sorting of secretory vesicles (SVs) from the trans-Golgi and/or endosomes. While its essentiality is undisputed in metazoa, its role in simpler eukaryotes seems less clear. Here, we dissect the role of AP-1 in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans and show that it is absolutely essential for growth due to its role in clathrin-dependent maintenance of polar traffic of specific membrane cargoes toward the apex of growing hyphae. We provide evidence that AP-1 is involved in both anterograde sorting of RabE^Rab11-labeled SVs and RabA/B^Rab5-dependent endosome recycling. Additionally, AP-1 is shown to be critical for microtubule and septin organization, further rationalizing its essentiality in cells that face the challenge of cytoskeleton-dependent polarized cargo traffic. This work also opens a novel issue on how nonpolar cargoes, such as transporters, are sorted to the eukaryotic plasma membrane.

Fungal Morphogenesis, from the Polarized Growth of Hyphae to Complex Reproduction and Infection Structures

Filamentous fungi constitute a large group of eukaryotic microorganisms that grow by forming simple tube-like hyphae that are capable of differentiating into more-complex morphological structures and distinct cell types. Hyphae form filamentous networks by extending at their tips while branching in subapical regions. Rapid tip elongation requires massive membrane insertion and extension of the rigid chitin-containing cell wall. This process is sustained by a continuous flow of secretory vesicles that depends on the coordinated action of the microtubule and actin cytoskeletons and the corresponding motors and associated proteins. Vesicles transport cell wall-synthesizing enzymes and accumulate in a special structure, the Spitzenkörper, before traveling further and fusing with the tip membrane. The place of vesicle fusion and growth direction are enabled and defined by the position of the Spitzenkörper, the so-called cell end markers, and other proteins involved in the exocytic process. Also important for tip extension is membrane recycling by endocytosis via early endosomes, which function as multipurpose transport vehicles for mRNA, septins, ribosomes, and peroxisomes. Cell integrity, hyphal branching, and morphogenesis are all processes that are largely dependent on vesicle and cytoskeleton dynamics. When hyphae differentiate structures for asexual or sexual reproduction or to mediate interspecies interactions, the hyphal basic cellular machinery may be reprogrammed through the synthesis of new proteins and/or the modification of protein activity. Although some transcriptional networks involved in such reprogramming of hyphae are well studied in several model filamentous fungi, clear connections between these networks and known determinants of hyphal morphogenesis are yet to be established.

Microtubule Motors in Establishment of Epithelial Cell Polarity

Epithelial cells play a key role in insuring physiological homeostasis by acting as a barrier between the outside environment and internal organs. They are also responsible for the vectorial transport of ions and fluid essential to the function of many organs. To accomplish these tasks, epithelial cells must generate an asymmetrically organized plasma membrane comprised of structurally and functionally distinct apical and basolateral membranes. Adherent and occluding junctions, respectively, anchor cells within a layer and prevent lateral diffusion of proteins in the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane and restrict passage of proteins and solutes through intercellular spaces. At a fundamental level, the establishment and maintenance of epithelial polarity requires that signals initiated at cell-substratum and cell-cell adhesions are transmitted appropriately and dynamically to the cytoskeleton, to the membrane-trafficking machinery, and to the regulation of occluding and adherent junctions. Rigorous descriptive and mechanistic studies published over the last 50 years have provided great detail to our understanding of epithelial polarization. Yet still, critical early steps in morphogenesis are not yet fully appreciated. In this review, we discuss how cytoskeletal motor proteins, primarily kinesins, contribute to coordinated modification of microtubule and actin arrays, formation and remodeling of cell adhesions to targeted membrane trafficking, and to initiating the formation and expansion of an apical lumen.

Cell Biology of Hyphal Growth

Filamentous fungi are a large and ancient clade of microorganisms that occupy a broad range of ecological niches. The success of filamentous fungi is largely due to their elongate hypha, a chain of cells, separated from each other by septa. Hyphae grow by polarized exocytosis at the apex, which allows the fungus to overcome long distances and invade many substrates, including soils and host tissues. Hyphal tip growth is initiated by establishment of a growth site and the subsequent maintenance of the growth axis, with transport of growth supplies, including membranes and proteins, delivered by motors along the cytoskeleton to the hyphal apex. Among the enzymes delivered are cell wall synthases that are exocytosed for local synthesis of the extracellular cell wall. Exocytosis is opposed by endocytic uptake of soluble and membrane-bound material into the cell. The first intracellular compartment in the endocytic pathway is the early endosomes, which emerge to perform essential additional functions as spatial organizers of the hyphal cell. Individual compartments within septated hyphae can communicate with each other via septal pores, which allow passage of cytoplasm or organelles to help differentiation within the mycelium. This article introduces the reader to more detailed aspects of hyphal growth in fungi.

Transport of fungal RAB11 secretory vesicles involves myosin-5, dynein/dynactin/p25, and kinesin-1 and is independent of kinesin-3

In Aspergillus nidulans, the distribution of exocytic carriers involves interplay between kinesin-1, myosin-5, and dynein. Engagement of the dynein complex to these carriers requires dynactin p25, but, unlike that of early endosomes, it does not require the Hook complex.

Hyphal tip cells of the fungus Aspergillus nidulans are useful for studying long-range intracellular traffic. Post-Golgi secretory vesicles (SVs) containing the RAB11 orthologue RabE engage myosin-5 as well as plus end– and minus end–directed microtubule motors, providing an experimental system with which to investigate the interplay between microtubule and actin motors acting on the same cargo. By exploiting the fact that depolymerization of F-actin unleashes SVs focused at the apex by myosin-5 to microtubule-dependent motors, we establish that the minus end–directed transport of SVs requires the dynein/dynactin supercomplex. This minus end–directed transport is largely unaffected by genetic ablation of the Hook complex adapting early endosomes (EEs) to dynein but absolutely requires p25 in dynactin. Thus dynein recruitment to two different membranous cargoes, namely EEs and SVs, requires p25, highlighting the importance of the dynactin pointed-end complex to scaffold cargoes. Finally, by studying the behavior of SVs and EEs in null and rigor mutants of kinesin-3 and kinesin-1 (UncA and KinA, respectively), we demonstrate that KinA is the major kinesin mediating the anterograde transport of SVs. Therefore SVs arrive at the apex of A. nidulans by anterograde transport involving cooperation of kinesin-1 with myosin-5 and can move away from the apex powered by dynein.

Coordinated process of polarized growth in filamentous fungi

Filamentous fungi are extremely polarized organisms, exhibiting continuous growth at their hyphal tips. The hyphal form is related to their pathogenicity in animals and plants, and their high secretion ability for biotechnology. Polarized growth requires a sequential supply of proteins and lipids to the hyphal tip. This transport is managed by vesicle trafficking via the actin and microtubule cytoskeleton. Therefore, the arrangement of the cytoskeleton is a crucial step to establish and maintain the cell polarity. This review summarizes recent findings unraveling the mechanism of polarized growth with special emphasis on the role of actin and microtubule cytoskeleton and polarity marker proteins. Rapid insertions of membranes via highly active exocytosis at hyphal tips could quickly dilute the accumulated polarity marker proteins. Recent findings by a super-resolution microscopy indicate that filamentous fungal cells maintain their polarity at the tips by repeating transient assembly and disassembly of polarity sites.

Microtubules and associated molecular motors in Neurospora crassa

The cytoskeleton provides structure, shape and movement to various cells. Microtubules (MTs) are tubular structures made of α and β-tubulin heterodimers organized in 13 protofilaments, forming a hollow cylinder. A vast group of MT-associated proteins determines the function, behavior and interaction of the MTs with other cellular components. Among these proteins, molecular motors such as the dynein-dynactin complex and kinesin superfamily play roles in MT organization and organelle transport. This article focuses on the MT cytoskeleton and associated molecular motors in the filamentous fungus Neurospora crassa In addition to reviewing current available information for this fungus and contrasting it with knowledge of other fungal species, we present new experimental results that support the role of dynein, dynactin and conventional kinesin in MT organization, dynamics and transport of subcellular structures (nuclei and secretory vesicles). In wild type hyphae of N. crassa, cytoplasmic MTs are arranged longitudinally along hyphae and display a helical curvature. They interlace with one another to form a network throughout the cytoplasm. N. crassa dynein and dynactin mutants have a scant and disorganized MT cytoskeleton, an erratic and reduced Spitzenkörper (Spk) and distorted hyphal morphology. In contrast, hyphae of mutants with defective conventional kinesin exhibit only minor disruptions in MT and Spk organization. Although nuclear positioning is affected in all mutants, the MT-associated motor proteins are not major contributors to nuclear movement during hyphal growth. Cytoplasmic bulk flow is the vehicle for nuclear displacement in growing hyphal regions of N. crassa Motors are involved in nuclei saltatory movements in both retrograde or anterograde direction. In the dynein and kinesin mutants, micro and macrovesicles can reach the Spk, although growth is slightly impaired and the Spk displays an erratic path. Hyphal growth requires MTs, and their associated motors are required for their organization and dynamics and Spk integrity.

Laser capture microdissection to identify septum-associated proteins in Aspergillus nidulans

To spatially resolve genetic differences at the cellular level, the laser-capture microdissection technique was developed. With this method cells can be cut from tissues with a laser beam and analyzed for DNA, RNA or protein composition. Here we adapted the technique to isolate septal microtubule-organizing center (MTOC)-associated proteins in Aspergillus nidulans About 3000 septa were collected and subjected to peptide fingerprinting by mass-spectrometric analysis. We identified the microtubule polymerase AlpA and found it interacts with ApsB specifically at sMTOCs, suggesting that AlpA might be involved in the assembly or the functioning of this protein complex.

Cytoplasmic dynein is required for the spatial organization of protein aggregates in filamentous fungi

Eukaryotes have evolved multiple strategies for maintaining cellular protein homeostasis. One such mechanism involves neutralization of deleterious protein aggregates via their defined spatial segregation. Here, using the molecular disaggregase Hsp104 as a marker for protein aggregation, we describe the spatial and temporal dynamics of protein aggregates in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans. Filamentous fungi, such as A. nidulans, are a diverse group of species of major health and economic importance and also serve as model systems for studying highly polarized eukaryotic cells. We find that microtubules promote the formation of Hsp104-positive aggregates, which coalesce into discrete subcellular structures in a process dependent on the microtubule-based motor cytoplasmic dynein. Finally, we find that impaired clearance of these inclusions negatively impacts retrograde trafficking of endosomes, a conventional dynein cargo, indicating that microtubule-based transport can be overwhelmed by chronic cellular stress.

Superresolution microscopy reveals a dynamic picture of cell polarity maintenance during directional growth

Polar (directional) cell growth, a key cellular mechanism shared among a wide range of species, relies on targeted insertion of new material at specific locations of the plasma membrane. How these cell polarity sites are stably maintained during massive membrane insertion has remained elusive. Conventional live-cell optical microscopy fails to visualize polarity site formation in the crowded cell membrane environment because of its limited resolution. We have used advanced live-cell imaging techniques to directly observe the localization, assembly, and disassembly processes of cell polarity sites with high spatiotemporal resolution in a rapidly growing filamentous fungus, Aspergillus nidulans. We show that the membrane-associated polarity site marker TeaR is transported on microtubules along with secretory vesicles and forms a protein cluster at that point of the apical membrane where the plus end of the microtubule touches. There, a small patch of membrane is added through exocytosis, and the TeaR cluster gets quickly dispersed over the membrane. There is an incessant disassembly and reassembly of polarity sites at the growth zone, and each new polarity site locus is slightly offset from preceding ones. On the basis of our imaging results and computational modeling, we propose a transient polarity model that explains how cell polarity is stably maintained during highly active directional growth.

Genetic evidence for a microtubule-capture mechanism during polarised growth of Aspergillus nidulans

The cellular switch from symmetry to polarity in eukaryotes depends on the microtubule (MT) and actin cytoskeletons. In fungi such as Schizosaccharomyces pombe or Aspergillus nidulans, the MT cytoskeleton determines the sites of actin polymerization through cortical cell-end marker proteins. Here we describe A. nidulans MT guidance protein A (MigA) as the first ortholog of the karyogamy protein Kar9 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae in filamentous fungi. A. nidulans MigA interacts with the cortical ApsA protein and is involved in spindle positioning during mitosis. MigA is also associated with septal and nuclear MT organizing centers (MTOCs). Super-resolution photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM) analyses revealed that MigA is recruited to assembling and retracting MT plus ends in an EbA-dependent manner. MigA is required for MT convergence in hyphal tips and plays a role in correct localization of the cell-end markers TeaA and TeaR. In addition, MigA interacts with a class-V myosin, suggesting that an active mechanism exists to capture MTs and to pull the ends along actin filaments. Hence, the organization of MTs and actin depend on each other, and positive feedback loops ensure robust polar growth.

Cytoplasmic dynein and early endosome transport

Microtubule-based distribution of organelles/vesicles is crucial for the function of many types of eukaryotic cells and the molecular motor cytoplasmic dynein is required for transporting a variety of cellular cargos toward the microtubule minus ends. Early endosomes represent a major cargo of dynein in filamentous fungi, and dynein regulators such as LIS1 and the dynactin complex are both required for early endosome movement. In fungal hyphae, kinesin-3 and dynein drive bi-directional movements of early endosomes. Dynein accumulates at microtubule plus ends; this accumulation depends on kinesin-1 and dynactin, and it is important for early endosome movements towards the microtubule minus ends. The physical interaction between dynein and early endosome requires the dynactin complex, and in particular, its p25 component. The FTS-Hook-FHIP (FHF) complex links dynein-dynactin to early endosomes, and within the FHF complex, Hook interacts with dynein-dynactin, and Hook-early endosome interaction depends on FHIP and FTS.

Transportation of Aspergillus nidulans Class III and V Chitin Synthases to the Hyphal Tips Depends on Conventional Kinesin

Cell wall formation and maintenance are crucial for hyphal morphogenesis. In many filamentous fungi, chitin is one of the main structural components of the cell wall. Aspergillus nidulans ChsB, a chitin synthase, and CsmA, a chitin synthase with a myosin motor-like domain (MMD) at its N-terminus, both localize predominantly at the hyphal tip regions and at forming septa. ChsB and CsmA play crucial roles in polarized hyphal growth in A. nidulans. In this study, we investigated the mechanism by which CsmA and ChsB accumulate at the hyphal tip in living hyphae. Deletion of kinA, a gene encoding conventional kinesin (kinesin-1), impaired the localization of GFP-CsmA and GFP-ChsB at the hyphal tips. The transport frequency of GFP-CsmA and GFP-ChsB in both anterograde and retrograde direction appeared lower in the kinA-deletion strain compared to wild type, although the velocities of the movements were comparable. Co-localization of GFP-ChsB and GFP-CsmA with mRFP1-KinArigor, a KinA mutant that binds to microtubules but does not move along them, was observed in the posterior of the hyphal tip regions. KinA co-immunoprecipitated with ChsB and CsmA. Co-localization and association of CsmA with KinA did not depend on the MMD. These findings indicate that ChsB and CsmA are transported along microtubules to the subapical region by KinA.

Fluorescent markers of the microtubule cytoskeleton in Zymoseptoria tritici

The microtubule cytoskeleton supports vital processes in fungal cells, including hyphal growth and mitosis. Consequently, it is a target for fungicides, such as benomyl. The use of fluorescent fusion proteins to illuminate microtubules and microtubule-associated proteins has led to a break-through in our understanding of their dynamics and function in fungal cells. Here, we introduce fluorescent markers to visualize microtubules and accessory proteins in the wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici. We fused enhanced green-fluorescent protein to α-tubulin (ZtTub2), to ZtPeb1, a homologue of the mammalian plus-end binding protein EB1, and to ZtGrc1, a component of the minus-end located γ-tubulin ring complex, involved in the nucleation of microtubules. In vivo observation confirms the localization and dynamic behaviour of all three markers. These marker proteins are useful tools for understanding the organization and importance of the microtubule cytoskeleton in Z. tritici.

Microtubule plus end-tracking proteins play critical roles in directional growth of hyphae by regulating the dynamics of cytoplasmic microtubules in Aspergillus nidulans

Cytoplasmic microtubules (MTs) serve as a rate-limiting factor for hyphal tip growth in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans. We hypothesized that this function depended on the MT plus end-tracking proteins (+TIPs) including the EB1 family protein EBA that decorated the MT plus ends undergoing polymerization. The ebAΔ mutation reduced colony growth and the mutant hyphae appeared in an undulating pattern instead of exhibiting unidirectional growth in the control. These phenotypes were enhanced by a mutation in another +TIP gene clipA. EBA was required for plus end-tracking of CLIPA, the Kinesin-7 motor KipA, and the XMAP215 homologue AlpA. In addition, cytoplasmic dynein also depended on EBA to track on most polymerizing MT plus ends, but not for its conspicuous appearance at the MT ends near the hyphal apex. The loss of EBA reduced the number of cytoplasmic MTs and prolonged dwelling times for MTs after reaching the hyphal apex. Finally, we found that colonies were formed in the absence of EBA, CLIPA, and NUDA together, suggesting that they were dispensable for fundamental functions of MTs. This study provided a comprehensive delineation of the relationship among different +TIPs and their contributions to MT dynamics and unidirectional hyphal expansion in filamentous fungi.

The Vip1 inositol polyphosphate kinase family regulates polarized growth and modulates the microtubule cytoskeleton in fungi

Microtubules (MTs) are pivotal for numerous eukaryotic processes ranging from cellular morphogenesis, chromosome segregation to intracellular transport. Execution of these tasks requires intricate regulation of MT dynamics. Here, we identify a new regulator of the Schizosaccharomyces pombe MT cytoskeleton: Asp1, a member of the highly conserved Vip1 inositol polyphosphate kinase family. Inositol pyrophosphates generated by Asp1 modulate MT dynamic parameters independent of the central +TIP EB1 and in a dose-dependent and cellular-context-dependent manner. Importantly, our analysis of the in vitro kinase activities of various S. pombe Asp1 variants demonstrated that the C-terminal phosphatase-like domain of the dual domain Vip1 protein negatively affects the inositol pyrophosphate output of the N-terminal kinase domain. These data suggest that the former domain has phosphatase activity. Remarkably, Vip1 regulation of the MT cytoskeleton is a conserved feature, as Vip1-like proteins of the filamentous ascomycete Aspergillus nidulans and the distantly related pathogenic basidiomycete Ustilago maydis also affect the MT cytoskeleton in these organisms. Consistent with the role of interphase MTs in growth zone selection/maintenance, all 3 fungal systems show aspects of aberrant cell morphogenesis. Thus, for the first time we have identified a conserved biological process for inositol pyrophosphates.

The role of +TIPs in directional tip expansion

Aspergillus nidulans is an ideal model to study nuclear migration and intracellular transport by dynein and kinesin owing to its long neuron-like hyphae, conserved transport mechanisms, and powerful genetics. In this organism, as in other filamentous fungi, microtubules have been implicated in patterning cell shape through polarized tip growth - the hallmark mode of growth that generates the elongated hyphae. Exactly how microtubules regulate tip growth is incompletely understood and remains a fascinating question for various cell types, such as pollen tubes and root hairs. Zeng et al. (2014) describe important new findings in A. nidulans regarding the role of EBA, the master regulator of microtubule plus end-tracking proteins, in specifying microtubule dynamics required for directional tip growth at the hyphal tip.

F-box protein RcyA controls turnover of the kinesin-7 motor KipA in Aspergillus nidulans

Fungal filamentous growth depends on continuous membrane insertion at the tip, the delivery of membrane-bound positional markers, and the secretion of enzymes for cell wall biosynthesis. This is achieved through exocytosis. At the same time, polarized growth requires membrane and protein recycling through endocytosis. Endocytic vesicles are thought to enter the protein degradation pathway or recycle their content to the cell surface. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the Rcy1 F-box protein is involved in the recycling process of a v-SNARE protein. We identified a Rcy1 orthologue, RcyA, in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans as a protein interacting with the KipA kinesin-7 motor protein in a yeast two-hybrid screen. The interaction was confirmed through bimolecular fluorescence complementation. RcyA possesses an F-box domain at the N terminus and a prenylation (CaaX) motif at the C terminus. RcyA shows also similarity to Sec10, a component of the exocyst complex. The RcyA protein localized to the hyphal tip and forming septa, likely through transportation on secretory vesicles and partially on early endosomes, but independently of KipA. Deletion of rcyA did not cause severe morphological changes but caused partial defects in the recycling of the SynA v-SNARE protein and the positioning of the cell end markers TeaA and TeaR. In addition, deletion of rcyA led to increased concentrations of the KipA protein, whereas the transcript concentration was unaffected. These results suggest that RcyA probably labels KipA for degradation and thereby controls the protein amount of KipA.

Maturation of late Golgi cisternae into RabE(RAB11) exocytic post-Golgi carriers visualized in vivo

The mechanism(s) by which proteins traverse and exit the Golgi are incompletely understood. Using Aspergillus nidulans hyphae, we show that late Golgi cisternae undergo changes in composition to gradually lose Golgi identity while acquiring post-Golgi RabE(RAB11) identity. This behavior of late Golgi cisternae is consistent with the cisternal maturation model. Post-Golgi RabE(RAB11) carriers travel to, and accumulate at, the apex, indicating that fusion is rate limiting for exocytosis. These carriers, which are loaded with kinesin, dynein, and MyoE(MYO5), move on a microtubule-based bidirectional conveyor belt relaying them to actin, which ultimately focuses exocytosis at the apex. Dynein drags RabE(RAB11) carriers away if engagement of MyoE(MYO5) to actin cables fails. Microtubules seemingly cooperating with F-actin capture can sustain secretion if MyoE(MYO5) is absent. Thus, filamentous fungal secretion involving post-Golgi carriers is remarkably similar, mechanistically, to the transport of melanosomes in melanocyte dendrites, even though melanosome biogenesis involves lysosomes rather than Golgi.

Interdependence of the actin and the microtubule cytoskeleton during fungal growth

Cell polarization is a theme in biology conserved from bacteria to man. One of the most extremely polarized cells in nature is the hyphae of filamentous fungi. A continuous flow of secretion vesicles from the hyphal cell body to the tip is essential for cell wall and membrane extension. Microtubules (MTs) and actin, along with their corresponding motor proteins, are involved in the secretion process. Therefore, the arrangement of the cytoskeleton is a crucial step to establish and maintain polarity. Here we review recent findings unraveling the mechanism of polarized growth with special emphasis on the role of the actin and MT cytoskeletons and cell end markers linking the two cytoskeletons. We will mainly focus on Neurospora crassa and Aspergillus nidulans as model organisms.

Genetically shaping morphology of the filamentous fungus Aspergillus glaucus for production of antitumor polyketide aspergiolide A

BACKGROUND

For filamentous fungi, the basic growth unit of hyphae usually makes it sensitive to shear stress which is generated from mechanical force and dynamic fluid in bioreactor, and it severely decreases microbial productions. The conventional strategies against shear-sensitive conundrum in fungal fermentation usually focus on adapting agitation, impeller type and bioreactor configuration, which brings high cost and tough work in industry. This study aims to genetically shape shear resistant morphology of shear-sensitive filamentous fungus Aspergillus glaucus to make it adapt to bioreactor so as to establish an efficient fermentation process.

RESULTS

Hyphal morphology shaping by modifying polarized growth genes of A. glaucus was applied to reduce its shear-sensitivity and enhance aspergiolide A production. Degenerate PCR and genome walking were used to obtain polarized growth genes AgkipA and AgteaR, followed by construction of gene-deficient mutants by homologous integration of double crossover. Deletion of both genes caused meandering hyphae, for which, ΔAgkipA led to small but intense curves comparing with ΔAgteaR by morphology analysis. The germination of a second germ tube from conidiospore of the mutants became random while colony growth and development almost maintained the same. Morphology of ΔAgkipA and ΔAgteaR mutants turned to be compact pellet and loose clump in liquid culture, respectively. The curved hyphae of both mutants showed no remarkably resistant to glass bead grinding comparing with the wild type strain. However, they generated greatly different broth rheology which further caused growth and metabolism variations in bioreactor fermentations. By forming pellets, the ΔAgkipA mutant created a tank environment with low-viscosity, low shear stress and high dissolved oxygen tension, leading to high production of aspergiolide A (121.7 ± 2.3 mg/L), which was 82.2% higher than the wild type.

CONCLUSIONS

A new strategy for shaping fungal morphology by modifying polarized growth genes was applied in submerged fermentation in bioreactor. This work provides useful information of shaping fungal morphology for submerged fermentation by genetically modification, which could be valuable for morphology improvement of industrial filamentous fungi.

Identification of interphase functions for the NIMA kinase involving microtubules and the ESCRT pathway

The Never in Mitosis A (NIMA) kinase (the founding member of the Nek family of kinases) has been considered a mitotic specific kinase with nuclear restricted roles in the model fungus Aspergillus nidulans. By extending to A. nidulans the results of a synthetic lethal screen performed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae using the NIMA ortholog KIN3, we identified a conserved genetic interaction between nimA and genes encoding proteins of the Endosomal Sorting Complex Required for Transport (ESCRT) pathway. Absence of ESCRT pathway functions in combination with partial NIMA function causes enhanced cell growth defects, including an inability to maintain a single polarized dominant cell tip. These genetic insights suggest NIMA potentially has interphase functions in addition to its established mitotic functions at nuclei. We therefore generated endogenously GFP-tagged NIMA (NIMA-GFP) which was fully functional to follow its interphase locations using live cell spinning disc 4D confocal microscopy. During interphase some NIMA-GFP locates to the tips of rapidly growing cells and, when expressed ectopically, also locates to the tips of cytoplasmic microtubules, suggestive of non-nuclear interphase functions. In support of this, perturbation of NIMA function either by ectopic overexpression or through partial inactivation results in marked cell tip growth defects with excess NIMA-GFP promoting multiple growing cell tips. Ectopic NIMA-GFP was found to locate to the plus ends of microtubules in an EB1 dependent manner, while impairing NIMA function altered the dynamic localization of EB1 and the cytoplasmic microtubule network. Together, our genetic and cell biological analyses reveal novel non-nuclear interphase functions for NIMA involving microtubules and the ESCRT pathway for normal polarized fungal cell tip growth. These insights extend the roles of NIMA both spatially and temporally and indicate that this conserved protein kinase could help integrate cell cycle progression with polarized cell growth.

The cell end marker Tea4 regulates morphogenesis and pathogenicity in the basidiomycete fungus Ustilago maydis

Positional cues localized to distinct cell domains are critical for the generation of cell polarity and cell morphogenesis. These cues lead to assembly of protein complexes that organize the cytoskeleton resulting in delivery of vesicles to sites of polarized growth. Tea4, an SH3 domain protein, was first identified in fission yeast, and is a critical determinant of the axis of polarized growth, a role conserved among ascomycete fungi. Ustilago maydis is a badiomycete fungus that exhibits a yeast-like form that is nonpathogenic and a filamentous form that is pathogenic on maize and teozintle. We are interested in understanding how positional cues contribute to generation and maintenance of these two forms, and their role in pathogenicity. We identified a homologue of fission yeast tea4 in a genetic screen for mutants with altered colony and cell morphology and present here analysis of Tea4 for the first time in a basidiomycete fungus. We demonstrate that Tea4 is an important positional marker for polarized growth and septum location in both forms. We uncover roles for Tea4 in maintenance of cell and neck width, cell separation, and cell wall deposition in the yeast-like form, and in growth rate, formation of retraction septa, growth reversal, and inhibition of budding in the filamentous form. We show that Tea4::GFP localizes to sites of polarized or potential polarized growth in both forms, as observed in ascomycete fungi. We demonstrate an essential role of Tea4 in pathogencity in the absence of cell fusion. Basidiomycete and ascomycete Tea4 homologues share SH3 and Glc7 domains. Tea4 in basidiomycetes has additional domains, which has led us to hypothesize that Tea4 has novel functions in this group of fungi.

Application of a new dual localization-affinity purification tag reveals novel aspects of protein kinase biology in Aspergillus nidulans

Filamentous fungi occupy critical environmental niches and have numerous beneficial industrial applications but devastating effects as pathogens and agents of food spoilage. As regulators of essentially all biological processes protein kinases have been intensively studied but how they regulate the often unique biology of filamentous fungi is not completely understood. Significant understanding of filamentous fungal biology has come from the study of the model organism Aspergillus nidulans using a combination of molecular genetics, biochemistry, cell biology and genomic approaches. Here we describe dual localization-affinity purification (DLAP) tags enabling endogenous N or C-terminal protein tagging for localization and biochemical studies in A. nidulans. To establish DLAP tag utility we endogenously tagged 17 protein kinases for analysis by live cell imaging and affinity purification. Proteomic analysis of purifications by mass spectrometry confirmed association of the CotA and NimX^Cdk1 kinases with known binding partners and verified a predicted interaction of the SldA^Bub1/R1 spindle assembly checkpoint kinase with SldB^Bub3. We demonstrate that the single TOR kinase of A. nidulans locates to vacuoles and vesicles, suggesting that the function of endomembranes as major TOR cellular hubs is conserved in filamentous fungi. Comparative analysis revealed 7 kinases with mitotic specific locations including An-Cdc7 which unexpectedly located to mitotic spindle pole bodies (SPBs), the first such localization described for this family of DNA replication kinases. We show that the SepH septation kinase locates to SPBs specifically in the basal region of apical cells in a biphasic manner during mitosis and again during septation. This results in gradients of SepH between G1 SPBs which shift along hyphae as each septum forms. We propose that SepH regulates the septation initiation network (SIN) specifically at SPBs in the basal region of G1 cells and that localized gradients of SIN activity promote asymmetric septation.