A mutation associated with CMT2A neuropathy causes defects in Fzo1 GTP hydrolysis, ubiquitylation, and protein turnover

The Power of Yeast in Modelling Human Nuclear Mutations Associated with Mitochondrial Diseases

The increasing application of next generation sequencing approaches to the analysis of human exome and whole genome data has enabled the identification of novel variants and new genes involved in mitochondrial diseases. The ability of surviving in the absence of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and mitochondrial genome makes the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae an excellent model system for investigating the role of these new variants in mitochondrial-related conditions and dissecting the molecular mechanisms associated with these diseases. The aim of this review was to highlight the main advantages offered by this model for the study of mitochondrial diseases, from the validation and characterisation of novel mutations to the dissection of the role played by genes in mitochondrial functionality and the discovery of potential therapeutic molecules. The review also provides a summary of the main contributions to the understanding of mitochondrial diseases emerged from the study of this simple eukaryotic organism.

The regulation of mitochondrial homeostasis by the ubiquitin proteasome system

From mitochondrial quality control pathways to the regulation of specific functions, the Ubiquitin Proteasome System (UPS) could be compared to a Swiss knife without which mitochondria could not maintain its integrity in the cell. Here, we review the mechanisms that the UPS employs to regulate mitochondrial function and efficiency. For this purpose, we depict how Ubiquitin and the Proteasome participate in diverse quality control pathways that safeguard entry into the mitochondrial compartment. A focus is then achieved on the UPS-mediated control of the yeast mitofusin Fzo1 which provides insights into the complex regulation of this particular protein in mitochondrial fusion. We ultimately dissect the mechanisms by which the UPS controls the degradation of mitochondria by autophagy in both mammalian and yeast systems. This organization should offer a useful overview of this abundant but fascinating literature on the crosstalks between mitochondria and the UPS.

The structure and function of deubiquitinases: lessons from budding yeast

Protein ubiquitination is a key post-translational modification that regulates diverse cellular processes in eukaryotic cells. The specificity of ubiquitin (Ub) signalling for different bioprocesses and pathways is dictated by the large variety of mono-ubiquitination and polyubiquitination events, including many possible chain architectures. Deubiquitinases (DUBs) reverse or edit Ub signals with high sophistication and specificity, forming an integral arm of the Ub signalling machinery, thus impinging on fundamental cellular processes including DNA damage repair, gene expression, protein quality control and organellar integrity. In this review, we discuss the many layers of DUB function and regulation, with a focus on insights gained from budding yeast. Our review provides a framework to understand key aspects of DUB biology.

A Yeast-Based Model for Hereditary Motor and Sensory Neuropathies: A Simple System for Complex, Heterogeneous Diseases

Charcot–Marie–Tooth (CMT) disease encompasses a group of rare disorders that are characterized by similar clinical manifestations and a high genetic heterogeneity. Such excessive diversity presents many problems. Firstly, it makes a proper genetic diagnosis much more difficult and, even when using the most advanced tools, does not guarantee that the cause of the disease will be revealed. Secondly, the molecular mechanisms underlying the observed symptoms are extremely diverse and are probably different for most of the disease subtypes. Finally, there is no possibility of finding one efficient cure for all, or even the majority of CMT diseases. Every subtype of CMT needs an individual approach backed up by its own research field. Thus, it is little surprise that our knowledge of CMT disease as a whole is selective and therapeutic approaches are limited. There is an urgent need to develop new CMT models to fill the gaps. In this review, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of yeast as a model system in which to study CMT diseases. We show how this single-cell organism may be used to discriminate between pathogenic variants, to uncover the mechanism of pathogenesis, and to discover new therapies for CMT disease.

Early-onset cerebellar ataxia in a patient with CMT2A2

A 9-yr 8-mo-old right-handed female presented with a history of gait difficulties, which first became apparent at age 9 mo of age, along with slurred speech and hand tremors while holding a tray. Her past medical history was significant for global developmental delay, and she was attending fourth grade special education classes. On examination, she had an ataxic gait, dysarthria, absent deep tendon reflexes, and flexor plantar responses. There were no signs of optic atrophy or hearing loss. Nerve conduction studies were consistent with an axonal neuropathy. A fascicular sural nerve biopsy showed a marked decrease of myelinated fibers larger than 6 µm in diameter as compared with an age-matched control. By electron microscopy, clusters of degenerating axonal mitochondria in both myelinated and unmyelinated fibers were frequently found. Whole-exome sequencing revealed a heterozygous c.314C > T (p.Thr105Met) missense variant in MFN2 in the patient but not in her mother. The father was unavailable for testing. The phenotypes with MFN2 variants can be quite variable, including intellectual disability, optic atrophy, auditory impairment, spinal atrophy with or without hydromyelia, and hydrocephalus. We report here that early onset ataxia with intellectual disability can also be associated with MFN2-related Charcot–Marie–Tooth, Type 2A2A diagnosis, the most common type of autosomal dominant axonal neuropathy.

Proteolytic regulation of mitochondrial dynamics

Spatiotemporal changes in the abundance, shape, and cellular localization of the mitochondrial network, also known as mitochondrial dynamics, are now widely recognized to play a key role in mitochondrial and cellular physiology as well as disease states. This process involves coordinated remodeling of the outer and inner mitochondrial membranes by conserved dynamin-like guanosine triphosphatases and their partner molecules in response to various physiological and stress stimuli. Although the core machineries that mediate fusion and partitioning of the mitochondrial network have been extensively characterized, many aspects of their function and regulation are incompletely understood and only beginning to emerge. In the present review we briefly summarize current knowledge about how the key mitochondrial dynamics-mediating factors are regulated via selective proteolysis by mitochondrial and cellular proteolytic machineries.

Two Cdc48 cofactors Ubp3 and Ubx2 regulate mitochondrial morphology and protein turnover

Mitochondria continuously undergo coordinated fusion and fission during vegetative growth to keep their homogeneity and to remove damaged components. A cytosolic AAA ATPase, Cdc48, is implicated in the mitochondrial fusion event and turnover of a fusion-responsible GTPase in the mitochondrial outer membrane, Fzo1, suggesting a possible linkage of mitochondrial fusion and Fzo1 turnover. Here, we identified two Cdc48 cofactor proteins, Ubp3 and Ubx2, involving mitochondria regulation. In the absence of UBP3, mitochondrial fragmentation and aggregation were observed. The turnover of Fzo1 was not affected in Δubp3, but instead a deubiquitylase Ubp12 that removes fusion-required polyubiquitin chains from Fzo1 was stabilized. Thus, excess amount of Ubp12 may lead to mitochondrial fragmentation by removal of fusion-competent ubiquitylated Fzo1. In contrast, deletion of UBX2 perturbed disassembly of Fzo1 oligomers and their degradation without alteration of mitochondrial morphology. The UBX2 deletion led to destabilization of Ubp2 that negatively regulates Fzo1 turnover by removing degradation-signalling polyubiquitin chains, suggesting that Ubx2 would directly facilitate Fzo1 degradation. These results indicated that two different Cdc48-cofactor complexes independently regulate mitochondrial fusion and Fzo1 turnover.

Mice Hemizygous for a Pathogenic Mitofusin-2 Allele Exhibit Hind Limb/Foot Gait Deficits and Phenotypic Perturbations in Nerve and Muscle

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2A (CMT2A), the most common axonal form of hereditary sensory motor neuropathy, is caused by mutations of mitofusin-2 (MFN2). Mitofusin-2 is a GTPase required for fusion of mitochondrial outer membranes, repair of damaged mitochondria, efficient mitochondrial energetics, regulation of mitochondrial-endoplasmic reticulum calcium coupling and axonal transport of mitochondria. We knocked T105M MFN2 preceded by a loxP-flanked STOP sequence into the mouse Rosa26 locus to permit cell type-specific expression of this pathogenic allele. Crossing these mice with nestin-Cre transgenic mice elicited T105M MFN2 expression in neuroectoderm, and resulted in diminished numbers of mitochondria in peripheral nerve axons, an alteration in skeletal muscle fiber type distribution, and a gait abnormality.

Regulation of Mitofusin1 by Mahogunin Ring Finger-1 and the proteasome modulates mitochondrial fusion

Health and homoeostasis are maintained by a dynamic balance between mitochondrial fission and fusion. Mitochondrial fusion machinery is largely unknown in mammals. Only a few reports have illustrated the role of Fzo1 in mitochondrial fusion known in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We demonstrate that the ubiquitin ligase Mahogunin Ring Finger-1 (MGRN1) interacts with and constitutively ubiquitinates the mammalian homolog, Mitofusin1 (Mfn1) via K63 linkages. In mice models, loss of Mgrn1 function leads to severe developmental defects and adult-onset spongiform neurodegeneration, similar to prion diseases. The tethering of mitochondria to form the ~180kDa Mfn1 complex is independent of MGRN1-mediated ubiquitination. However, successful mitochondrial fusion requires formation of higher oligomers of Mfn1 which in turn needs GTPase activity, intact heptad repeats of Mfn1 and ubiquitination by MGRN1. Following ubiquitination, proteasomal processing of Mfn1 completes the mitochondrial fusion process. This step requires functional p97 activity. These findings suggest a sequence of events where GTPase activity of Mfn1 and tethering of adjacent mitochondria precedes its MGRN1-mediated ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation culminating in mitochondrial fusion.

A mitofusin-dependent docking ring complex triggers mitochondrial fusion in vitro

Fusion of mitochondrial outer membranes is crucial for proper organelle function and involves large GTPases called mitofusins. The discrete steps that allow mitochondria to attach to one another and merge their outer membranes are unknown. By combining an in vitro mitochondrial fusion assay with electron cryo-tomography (cryo-ET), we visualize the junction between attached mitochondria isolated from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and observe complexes that mediate this attachment. We find that cycles of GTP hydrolysis induce progressive formation of a docking ring structure around extended areas of contact. Further GTP hydrolysis triggers local outer membrane fusion at the periphery of the contact region. These findings unravel key features of mitofusin-dependent fusion of outer membranes and constitute an important advance in our understanding of how mitochondria connect and merge.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.14618.001

Yeast and other eukaryotic cells contain distinct compartments that have specific roles. For example, compartments called mitochondria – which are surrounded by two layers of membrane – provide the energy needed for many cell processes. The organization of the network of mitochondria in a cell has a large effect on their capacity to provide energy. Mitochondria can fuse together to make larger compartments or divide to make smaller ones. Defects in fusion or division of mitochondria can reduce the amount of energy that is provided, which, in humans and animals can lead to diseases that affect various organs, especially those in the nervous system.

When two mitochondria fuse they must first attach to each other and then merge their outer membranes. Proteins called mitofusins are known to be involved in these processes, but the molecular details of how they take place were not clear.

Brandt, Cavellini et al. investigated how mitochondria isolated from budding yeast cells attach to each other. The experiments found that two mitochondria first become loosely attached by mitofusins. These proteins then promote a tighter attachment in which the outer membranes of the two mitochondria come into contact over a larger area. This contact area is determined by a linear arrangement of proteins referred to as the docking ring. Brandt, Cavellini et al. further observed that local fusion between the outer membranes takes place at the edge of the contact area in the path of the docking ring.

Future research will need to address how mitochondria attach to each other in living cells and how the process is regulated.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.14618.002

Activation of Mitofusin2 by Smad2-RIN1 Complex during Mitochondrial Fusion

Smads are nuclear-shuttling transcriptional mediators of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling. Although their essential nuclear roles in gene regulation during development and carcinogenesis are well established, whether they have important cytoplasmic functions remains unclear. Here we report that Smad2 is a critical determinant of mitochondrial dynamics. We identified mitofusin2 (MFN2) and Rab and Ras Interactor 1 (RIN1) as new Smad2 binding partners required for mitochondrial fusion. Unlike TGF-β-induced Smad2/3 transcriptional responses underlying mitochondrial fragmentation and apoptosis, inactive cytoplasmic Smad2 rapidly promotes mitochondrial fusion by recruiting RIN1 into a complex with MFN2. We demonstrate that Smad2 is a key scaffold, allowing RIN1 to act as a GTP exchange factor for MFN2-GTPase activation to promote mitochondrial ATP synthesis and suppress superoxide production. These results reveal functional implications between Smads and mitochondrial dysfunction in cancer and metabolic and neurodegenerative disorders.

Yeast as a system for modeling mitochondrial disease mechanisms and discovering therapies

Mitochondrial diseases are severe and largely untreatable. Owing to the many essential processes carried out by mitochondria and the complex cellular systems that support these processes, these diseases are diverse, pleiotropic, and challenging to study. Much of our current understanding of mitochondrial function and dysfunction comes from studies in the baker's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Because of its good fermenting capacity, S. cerevisiae can survive mutations that inactivate oxidative phosphorylation, has the ability to tolerate the complete loss of mitochondrial DNA (a property referred to as ‘petite-positivity’), and is amenable to mitochondrial and nuclear genome manipulation. These attributes make it an excellent model system for studying and resolving the molecular basis of numerous mitochondrial diseases. Here, we review the invaluable insights this model organism has yielded about diseases caused by mitochondrial dysfunction, which ranges from primary defects in oxidative phosphorylation to metabolic disorders, as well as dysfunctions in maintaining the genome or in the dynamics of mitochondria. Owing to the high level of functional conservation between yeast and human mitochondrial genes, several yeast species have been instrumental in revealing the molecular mechanisms of pathogenic human mitochondrial gene mutations. Importantly, such insights have pointed to potential therapeutic targets, as have genetic and chemical screens using yeast.

Summary: In this Review, we discuss the use of budding yeast to understand mitochondrial diseases and help in the search for their treatments.

Mitochondrial dynamic changes in health and genetic diseases

Mitochondria are highly specialized in function, but mitochondrial and, therefore, cellular integrity is maintained through their dynamic nature. Through the frequent processes of fusion and fission, mitochondria continuously change in shape and adjust function to meet cellular requirements. Abnormalities in fusion/fission dynamics generate cellular dysfunction that may lead to diseases. Mutations in the genes encoding mitochondrial fusion/fission proteins, such as MFN2 and OPA1, have been associated with an increasing number of genetic disorders, including Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2A (CMT2A) and autosomal dominant optic atrophy. In this review, we address the mitochondrial dynamic changes in several important genetic diseases, which will bring the new insight of clinical relevance of mitochondrial genetics.

Dynamic survey of mitochondria by ubiquitin

Ubiquitin is a post-translational modifier with proteolytic and non-proteolytic roles in many biological processes. At mitochondria, it performs regulatory homeostatic functions and contributes to mitochondrial quality control. Ubiquitin is essential for mitochondrial fusion, regulates mitochondria-ER contacts, and participates in maternal mtDNA inheritance. Under stress, mitochondrial dysfunction induces ubiquitin-dependent responses that involve mitochondrial proteome remodeling and culminate in organelle removal by mitophagy. In addition, many ubiquitin-dependent mechanisms have been shown to regulate innate immune responses and xenophagy. Here, we review the emerging roles of ubiquitin at mitochondria.

Mitochondria in lung diseases

Mitochondria are autonomous cellular organelles that oversee a variety of functions such as metabolism, energy production, calcium buffering and cell fate determination. Regulation of their morphology and diverse activities beyond energy production are being recognized as playing major roles in cellular health and dysfunction. This review is aimed at summarizing what is known regarding mitochondrial contributions to pathogenesis of lung diseases. Emphasis is given to understanding the importance of structural and functional aspects of mitochondria in both normal cellular function (based on knowledge from other cell types) and in development and modulation of lung diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cystic fibrosis and cancer. Emerging techniques that allow examination of mitochondria, and potential strategies to target mitochondria in the treatment of lung diseases are also discussed.

Activation and degradation of mitofusins: two pathways regulate mitochondrial fusion by reversible ubiquitylation

Mitofusins are large GTPases essential for mitochondrial fusion. In this issue, Anton et al. (2013) report that two independent pathways of ubiquitylation/deubiquitylation control activation and degradation of mitofusins, revealing a sophisticated mechanism of regulating mitochondrial dynamics.

Interchangeable adaptors regulate mitochondrial dynamin assembly for membrane scission

Mitochondrial fission is mediated by the dynamin-related GTPases Dnm1/Drp1 (yeast/mammals), which form spirals around constricted sites on mitochondria. Additional membrane-associated adaptor proteins (Fis1, Mdv1, Mff, and MiDs) are required to recruit these GTPases from the cytoplasm to the mitochondrial surface. Whether these adaptors participate in both GTPase recruitment and membrane scission is not known. Here we use a yeast strain lacking all fission proteins to identify the minimal combinations of GTPases and adaptors sufficient for mitochondrial fission. Although Fis1 is dispensable for fission, membrane-anchored Mdv1, Mff, or MiDs paired individually with their respective GTPases are sufficient to divide mitochondria. In addition to their role in Drp1 membrane recruitment, MiDs coassemble with Drp1 in vitro. The resulting heteropolymer adopts a dramatically different structure with a narrower diameter than Drp1 homopolymers assembled in isolation. This result demonstrates that an adaptor protein alters the architecture of a mitochondrial dynamin GTPase polymer in a manner that could facilitate membrane constriction and severing activity.

A chronic leg ulcer presenting with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease and type 2 diabetes: a case report

Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) disease is characterized by hereditary sensorimotor polyneuropathy with foot deformity, sensorineural hearing loss, moderate developmental delay, and gait disturbance. CMT presenting with type 2 diabetes and an ulcer has not been reported. This article reports a man who presented with the symptoms mentioned above and also with a leg ulcer and type 2 diabetes. He was diagnosed with CMT disease based on family history and genetic testing. A skin defect in the left leg had manifested for more than 1 year, and results of initial fasting plasma glucose revealed type 2 diabetes. The evolution of these manifestations, coupled with a slowly progressive weakness, numbness, muscular wasting, and sensory impairment, strongly suggested the co-occurrence of 3 different diseases in the same individual.

Two deubiquitylases act on mitofusin and regulate mitochondrial fusion along independent pathways

Mitofusins, conserved dynamin-related GTPases in the mitochondrial outer membrane, mediate the fusion of mitochondria. Here, we demonstrate that the activity of the mitofusin Fzo1 is regulated by sequential ubiquitylation at conserved lysine residues and by the deubiquitylases Ubp2 and Ubp12. Ubp2 and Ubp12 recognize distinct ubiquitin chains on Fzo1 that have opposing effects on mitochondrial fusion. Ubp2 removes ubiquitin chains that initiate proteolysis of Fzo1 and inhibit fusion. Ubp12 recognizes ubiquitin chains that stabilize Fzo1 and promote mitochondrial fusion. Self-assembly of dynamin-related GTPases is critical for their function. Ubp12 deubiquitylates Fzo1 only after oligomerization. Moreover, ubiquitylation at one monomer activates ubiquitin chain formation on another monomer. Thus, regulation of mitochondrial fusion involves ubiquitylation of mitofusin at distinct lysine residues, intermolecular crosstalk between mitofusin monomers, and two deubiquitylases that act as regulatory and quality control enzymes.

The power of yeast to model diseases of the powerhouse of the cell

Mitochondria participate in a variety of cellular functions. As such, mitochondrial diseases exhibit numerous clinical phenotypes. Because mitochondrial functions are highly conserved between humans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, yeast are an excellent model to study mitochondrial disease, providing insight into both physiological and pathophysiological processes.

Mechanistic perspective of mitochondrial fusion: tubulation vs. fragmentation

Mitochondrial fusion is a fundamental process driven by dynamin related GTPase proteins (DRPs), in contrast to the general SNARE-dependence of most cellular fusion events. The DRPs Mfn1/Mfn2/Fzo1 and OPA1/Mgm1 are the key effectors for fusion of the mitochondrial outer and inner membranes, respectively. In order to promote fusion, these two DRPs require post-translational modifications and proteolysis. OPA1/Mgm1 undergoes partial proteolytic processing, which results in a combination between short and long isoforms. In turn, ubiquitylation of mitofusins, after oligomerization and GTP hydrolysis, promotes and positively regulates mitochondrial fusion. In contrast, under conditions of mitochondrial dysfunction, negative regulation by proteolysis on these DRPs results in mitochondrial fragmentation. This occurs by complete processing of OPA1 and via ubiquitylation and degradation of mitofusins. Mitochondrial fragmentation contributes to the elimination of damaged mitochondria by mitophagy, and may play a protective role against Parkinson's disease. Moreover, a link of Mfn2 to Alzheimer's disease is emerging and mutations in Mfn2 or OPA1 cause Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 2A neuropathy or autosomal-dominant optic atrophy. Here, we summarize our current understanding on the molecular mechanisms promoting or inhibiting fusion of mitochondrial membranes, which is essential for cellular survival and disease control. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Mitochondrial dynamics and physiology.

Gem1 and ERMES do not directly affect phosphatidylserine transport from ER to mitochondria or mitochondrial inheritance

In yeast, a protein complex termed the ER-Mitochondria Encounter Structure (ERMES) tethers mitochondria to the endoplasmic reticulum. ERMES proteins are implicated in a variety of cellular functions including phospholipid synthesis, mitochondrial protein import, mitochondrial attachment to actin, polarized mitochondrial movement into daughter cells during division, and maintenance of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The mitochondrial-anchored Gem1 GTPase has been proposed to regulate ERMES functions. Here, we show that ERMES and Gem1 have no direct role in the transport of phosphatidylserine (PS) from the ER to mitochondria during the synthesis of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), as PS to PE conversion is not affected in ERMES or gem1 mutants. In addition, we report that mitochondrial inheritance defects in ERMES mutants are a secondary consequence of mitochondrial morphology defects, arguing against a primary role for ERMES in mitochondrial association with actin and mitochondrial movement. Finally, we show that ERMES complexes are long-lived, and do not depend on the presence of Gem1. Our findings suggest that the ERMES complex may have primarily a structural role in maintaining mitochondrial morphology.

Neurodegeneration as a consequence of failed mitochondrial maintenance

Maintaining the functional integrity of mitochondria is pivotal for cellular survival. It appears that neuronal homeostasis depends on high-fidelity mitochondria, in particular. Consequently, mitochondrial dysfunction is a fundamental problem associated with a significant number of neurological diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and various peripheral neuropathies, as well as the normal aging process. To ensure optimal mitochondrial function, diverse, evolutionarily conserved mitochondrial quality control mechanisms are in place, including the scavenging of toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) and degradation of damaged mitochondrial proteins, but also turnover of whole organelles. In this review we will discuss various mitochondria-associated conditions, focusing on the role of protein turnover in mitochondrial maintenance with special emphasis on neurodegenerative disorders.

Sequential requirements for the GTPase domain of the mitofusin Fzo1 and the ubiquitin ligase SCFMdm30 in mitochondrial outer membrane fusion

The ability of cells to respire requires that mitochondria undergo fusion and fission of their outer and inner membranes. The means by which levels of fusion 'machinery' components are regulated and the molecular details of how fusion occurs are largely unknown. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a central component of the mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM) fusion machinery is the mitofusin Fzo1, a dynamin-like GTPase. We demonstrate that an early step in fusion, mitochondrial tethering, is dependent on the Fzo1 GTPase domain. Furthermore, the ubiquitin ligase SCF(Mdm30) (a SKP1-cullin-1-F-box complex that contains Mdm30 as the F-box protein), which targets Fzo1 for ubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation, is recruited to Fzo1 as a consequence of a GTPase-domain-dependent alteration in the mitofusin. Moreover, evidence is provided that neither Mdm30 nor proteasome activity are necessary for tethering of mitochondria. However, both Mdm30 and proteasomes are critical for MOM fusion. To better understand the requirement for the ubiquitin-proteasome system in mitochondrial fusion, we used the N-end rule system of degrons and determined that ongoing degradation of Fzo1 is important for mitochondrial morphology and respiration. These findings suggest a sequence of events in early mitochondrial fusion where Fzo1 GTPase-domain-dependent tethering leads to recruitment of SCF(Mdm30) and ubiquitin-mediated degradation of Fzo1, which facilitates mitochondrial fusion.

Ugo1 and Mdm30 act sequentially during Fzo1-mediated mitochondrial outer membrane fusion

Dynamin-related GTPase proteins (DRPs) are main players in membrane remodelling. Conserved DRPs called mitofusins (Mfn1/Mfn2/Fzo1) mediate the fusion of mitochondrial outer membranes (OM). OM fusion depends on self-assembly and GTPase activity of mitofusins as well as on two other proteins, Ugo1 and Mdm30. Here, we define distinct steps of the OM fusion cycle using in vitro and in vivo approaches. We demonstrate that yeast Fzo1 assembles into homo-dimers, depending on Ugo1 and on GTP binding to Fzo1. Fzo1 homo-dimers further associate upon formation of mitochondrial contacts, allowing membrane tethering. Subsequent GTP hydrolysis is required for Fzo1 ubiquitylation by the F-box protein Mdm30. Finally, Mdm30-dependent degradation of Fzo1 completes Fzo1 function in OM fusion. Our results thus unravel functions of Ugo1 and Mdm30 at distinct steps during OM fusion and suggest that protein clearance confers a non-cycling mechanism to mitofusins, which is distinct from other cellular membrane fusion events.

Regulation of mitochondrial morphology by APC/CCdh1-mediated control of Drp1 stability

Mitochondria form an interconnected network that undergoes dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1)-dependent fission during mitosis. We demonstrate that changes in mitochondrial dynamics as cells exit mitosis are driven through ubiquitylation of Drp1 by the (anaphase- promoting complex/cyclosome and its coactivator Cdh1) APC/C^Cdh1 complex. Inhibition Drp1 degradation prevents the normal regrowth of mitochondrial networks during G1 phase.

Homeostatic maintenance of cellular mitochondria requires a dynamic balance between fission and fusion, and controlled changes in morphology are important for processes such as apoptosis and cellular division. Interphase mitochondria have been described as an interconnected network that fragments as cells enter mitosis, and this mitotic mitochondrial fragmentation is known to be regulated by the dynamin-related GTPase Drp1 (dynamin-related protein 1), a key component of the mitochondrial division machinery. Loss of Drp1 function and the subsequent failure of mitochondrial division during mitosis lead to incomplete cytokinesis and the unequal distribution of mitochondria into daughter cells. During mitotic exit and interphase, the mitochondrial network reforms. Here we demonstrate that changes in mitochondrial dynamics as cells exit mitosis are driven in part through ubiquitylation of Drp1, catalyzed by the APC/C^Cdh1 (anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome and its coactivator Cdh1) E3 ubiquitin ligase complex. Importantly, inhibition of Cdh1-mediated Drp1 ubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation during interphase prevents the normal G1 phase regrowth of mitochondrial networks following cell division.

Proteasome and p97 mediate mitophagy and degradation of mitofusins induced by Parkin

Damage to mitochondria can lead to the depolarization of the inner mitochondrial membrane, thereby sensitizing impaired mitochondria for selective elimination by autophagy. However, fusion of uncoupled mitochondria with polarized mitochondria can compensate for damage, reverse membrane depolarization, and obviate mitophagy. Parkin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase that is mutated in monogenic forms of Parkinson's disease, was recently found to induce selective autophagy of damaged mitochondria. Here we show that ubiquitination of mitofusins Mfn1 and Mfn2, large GTPases that mediate mitochondrial fusion, is induced by Parkin upon membrane depolarization and leads to their degradation in a proteasome- and p97-dependent manner. p97, a AAA+ ATPase, accumulates on mitochondria upon uncoupling of Parkin-expressing cells, and both p97 and proteasome activity are required for Parkin-mediated mitophagy. After mitochondrial fission upon depolarization, Parkin prevents or delays refusion of mitochondria, likely by the elimination of mitofusins. Inhibition of Drp1-mediated mitochondrial fission, the proteasome, or p97 prevents Parkin-induced mitophagy.

Molecular architecture of a dynamin adaptor: implications for assembly of mitochondrial fission complexes

Recruitment and assembly of some dynamin-related guanosine triphosphatases depends on adaptor proteins restricted to distinct cellular membranes. The yeast Mdv1 adaptor localizes to mitochondria by binding to the membrane protein Fis1. Subsequent Mdv1 binding to the mitochondrial dynamin Dnm1 stimulates Dnm1 assembly into spirals, which encircle and divide the mitochondrial compartment. In this study, we report that dimeric Mdv1 is joined at its center by a 92-Å antiparallel coiled coil (CC). Modeling of the Fis1-Mdv1 complex using available crystal structures suggests that the Mdv1 CC lies parallel to the bilayer with N termini at opposite ends bound to Fis1 and C-terminal β-propeller domains (Dnm1-binding sites) extending into the cytoplasm. A CC length of appropriate length and sequence is necessary for optimal Mdv1 interaction with Fis1 and Dnm1 and is important for proper Dnm1 assembly before membrane scission. Our results provide a framework for understanding how adaptors act as scaffolds to orient and stabilize the assembly of dynamins on membranes.

Mitochondrial fusion and fission in cell life and death

Mitochondria are dynamic organelles that constantly fuse and divide. These processes (collectively termed mitochondrial dynamics) are important for mitochondrial inheritance and for the maintenance of mitochondrial functions. The core components of the evolutionarily conserved fusion and fission machineries have now been identified, and mechanistic studies have revealed the first secrets of the complex processes that govern fusion and fission of a double membrane-bound organelle. Mitochondrial dynamics was recently recognized as an important constituent of cellular quality control. Defects have detrimental consequences on bioenergetic supply and contribute to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. These findings open exciting new directions to explore mitochondrial biology.

Developmental defects and neuromuscular alterations due to mitofusin 2 gene (MFN2) silencing in zebrafish: a new model for Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 2A neuropathy

The development of new animal models is a crucial step in determining the pathological mechanism underlying neurodegenerative diseases and is essential for the development of effective therapies. We have investigated the zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a new model to study CMT2A, a peripheral neuropathy characterized by the selective loss of motor neurons, caused by mutations of mitofusin 2 gene. Using a knock-down approach, we provide evidence that during embryonic development, mitofusin 2 loss of function is responsible of several morphological defects and motility impairment. Immunohistochemical investigations, revealing the presence of severe alterations in both motor neurons and muscles fibres, indicated the central role played by MFN2 in axonal and neuromuscular development. Finally, we demonstrated the ability of human MFN2 to balance the downregulation of endogenous mfn2 in zebrafish, further supporting the conserved function of the MFN2 gene. These results highlight the essential role of mitofusin 2 in the motor axon development and demonstrate the potential of zebrafish as a suitable and complementary platform for dissecting pathogenetic mechanisms of MFN2 mutations in vivo.

Mitochondria and the culture of the Borg: understanding the integration of mitochondrial function within the reticulum, the cell, and the organism

As endosymbionts, the mitochondria are unique among organelles. This review provides insights into mitochondrial behavior and introduces the idea of a unified collective, an interconnected reticulum reminiscent of the Borg, a fictional humanoid species from the Star Trek television series whereby decisions are made within their network (or “hive”), linked to signaling cascades that coordinate the cross-talk between mitochondrial and cellular processes (“subspace domain”). Similarly, mitochondrial dynamics are determined by two distinct processes, namely the local regulation of fission/fusion and the global control of their behavior through cellular signaling pathways. Indeed, decisions within the hive provide each mitochondrial unit with autonomous control of their own degradation, whereby mitochondrial fusion is inactivated and they become substrates for autophagy. Decisions within the subspace domain couple signaling pathways involved in the functional integration of mitochondria with complex cellular transitions, including developmental cues, mitosis, and apoptosis.