Caenorhabditis elegans Aurora A kinase is required for the formation of spindle microtubules in female meiosis

Temporally distinct roles of Aurora A in polarization of the C. elegans zygote

During asymmetric cell division, cell polarity is coordinated with the cell cycle to allow proper inheritance of cell fate determinants and the generation of cellular diversity. In the Caenorhabditis elegans zygote, polarity is governed by evolutionarily conserved Partitioning-defective (PAR) proteins that segregate to opposing cortical domains to specify asymmetric cell fates. Timely establishment of PAR domains requires a cell cycle kinase, Aurora A (AIR-1 in C. elegans). Aurora A depletion by RNAi causes a spectrum of phenotypes including reversed polarity, excess posterior domains and no posterior domain. How depletion of a single kinase can cause seemingly opposite phenotypes remains obscure. Using an auxin-inducible degradation system and drug treatments, we found that AIR-1 regulates polarity differently at different times of the cell cycle. During meiosis I, AIR-1 acts to prevent later formation of bipolar domains, whereas in meiosis II, AIR-1 is necessary to recruit PAR-2 onto the membrane. Together, these data clarify the origin of multiple polarization phenotypes in RNAi experiments and reveal multiple roles of AIR-1 in coordinating PAR protein localization with cell cycle progression.

Auxin-induced degradation of the aurora A kinase, AIR-1, in C. elegans does not prevent assembly of bipolar meiotic spindles

Chromosome segregation during mitosis and male meiosis is mediated by centrosomal spindles that require the activity of the aurora A kinase, whereas female meiotic spindles of many species are acentrosomal. We addressed the role of the C. elegans aurora A kinase, AIR-1 , in acentrosomal spindle assembly by generating a strain in which AIR-1 is tagged with both an auxin-induced degron and HALO tag. The meiotic spindle pole marker, MEI-1 , and chromosomes were labeled with GFP and mCH::histone respectively. All meiotic spindles were bipolar in AIR-1 depleted embryos, however an increase in lagging chromosomes was observed during anaphase.

Functional specialization of Aurora kinase homologs during oogenic meiosis in the tunicate Oikopleura dioica

A single Aurora kinase found in non-vertebrate deuterostomes is assumed to represent the ancestor of vertebrate Auroras A/B/C. However, the tunicate Oikopleura dioica, a member of the sister group to vertebrates, possesses two Aurora kinases (Aurora1 and Aurora2) that are expressed in proliferative cells and reproductive organs. Previously, we have shown that Aurora kinases relocate from organizing centers to meiotic nuclei and were enriched on centromeric regions as meiosis proceeds to metaphase I. Here, we assessed their respective functions in oogenic meiosis using dsRNA interferences. We found that Aurora1 (Aur1) was involved in meiotic spindle organization and chromosome congression, probably through the regulation of microtubule dynamics, whereas Aurora2 (Aur2) was crucial for chromosome condensation and meiotic spindle assembly. In vitro kinase assays showed that Aur1 and Aur2 had comparable levels of kinase activities. Using yeast two-hybrid library screening, we identified a few novel interaction proteins for Aur1, including c-Jun-amino-terminal kinase-interacting protein 4, cohesin loader Scc2, and mitochondrial carrier homolog 2, suggesting that Aur1 may have an altered interaction network and participate in the regulation of microtubule motors and cohesin complexes in O. dioica.

Temporally distinct roles of Aurora A in polarization of the C. elegans zygote

During asymmetric cell division, coordination of cell polarity and the cell cycle is critical for proper inheritance of cell fate determinants and generation of cellular diversity. In Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), polarity is established in the zygote and is governed by evolutionarily conserved Partitioning defective (PAR) proteins that localize to distinct cortical domains. At the time of polarity establishment, anterior and posterior PARs segregate to opposing cortical domains that specify asymmetric cell fates. Timely establishment of these PAR domains requires a cell cycle kinase, Aurora A (AIR-1 in C.elegans). Aurora A depletion by RNAi causes a spectrum of phenotypes including no posterior domain, reversed polarity, and excess posterior domains. How depletion of a single kinase can cause seemingly opposite phenotypes remains obscure. Using an auxin-inducible degradation system, drug treatments, and high-resolution microscopy, we found that AIR-1 regulates polarity via distinct mechanisms at different times of the cell cycle. During meiosis I, AIR-1 acts to prevent the formation of bipolar domains, while in meiosis II, AIR-1 is necessary to recruit PAR-2 onto the membrane. Together these data clarify the origin of the multiple polarization phenotypes observed in RNAi experiments and reveal multiple roles of AIR-1 in coordinating PAR protein localization with the progression of the cell cycle.

A germline-specific role for unconventional components of the γ-tubulin complex in Caenorhabditis elegans

The γ-tubulin complex (γTuC) is a widely conserved microtubule nucleator, but some of its components, namely GCP4, GCP5 and GCP6 (also known as TUBGCP4, TUBGCP5 and TUBGCP6, respectively), have not been detected in Caenorhabditis elegans. Here, we identified two γTuC-associated proteins in C. elegans, GTAP-1 and GTAP-2, for which apparent orthologs were detected only in the genus Caenorhabditis. GTAP-1 and GTAP-2 were found to localize at centrosomes and the plasma membrane of the germline, and their centrosomal localization was interdependent. In early C. elegans embryos, whereas the conserved γTuC component MZT-1 (also known as MOZART1 and MZT1) was essential for the localization of centrosomal γ-tubulin, depletion of GTAP-1 and/or GTAP-2 caused up to 50% reduction of centrosomal γ-tubulin and precocious disassembly of spindle poles during mitotic telophase. In the adult germline, GTAP-1 and GTAP-2 contributed to efficient recruitment of the γTuC to the plasma membrane. Depletion of GTAP-1, but not of GTAP-2, severely disrupted both the microtubule array and the honeycomb-like structure of the adult germline. We propose that GTAP-1 and GTAP-2 are unconventional components of the γTuC that contribute to the organization of both centrosomal and non-centrosomal microtubules by targeting the γTuC to specific subcellular sites in a tissue-specific manner.

ZYG-9ch-TOG promotes the stability of acentrosomal poles via regulation of spindle microtubules in C. elegans oocyte meiosis

During mitosis, centrosomes serve as microtubule organizing centers that guide the formation of a bipolar spindle. However, oocytes of many species lack centrosomes; how meiotic spindles establish and maintain these acentrosomal poles remains poorly understood. Here, we show that the microtubule polymerase ZYG-9ch-TOG is required to maintain acentrosomal pole integrity in C. elegans oocyte meiosis. We exploited the auxin inducible degradation system to remove ZYG-9 from pre-formed spindles within minutes; this caused the poles to split apart and an unstable multipolar structure to form. Depletion of TAC-1, a protein known to interact with ZYG-9 in mitosis, caused loss of proper ZYG-9 localization and similar spindle phenotypes, further demonstrating that ZYG-9 is required for pole integrity. However, depletion of ZYG-9 or TAC-1 surprisingly did not affect the assembly or stability of monopolar spindles, suggesting that these proteins are not required for acentrosomal pole structure per se. Moreover, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) revealed that ZYG-9 turns over rapidly at acentrosomal poles, displaying similar turnover dynamics to tubulin itself, suggesting that ZYG-9 does not play a static structural role at poles. Together, these data support a global role for ZYG-9 in regulating the stability of bipolar spindles and demonstrate that the maintenance of acentrosomal poles requires factors beyond those acting to organize the pole structure itself.

Cohesin is required for meiotic spindle assembly independent of its role in cohesion in C. elegans

Accurate chromosome segregation requires a cohesin-mediated physical attachment between chromosomes that are to be segregated apart, and a bipolar spindle with microtubule plus ends emanating from exactly two poles toward the paired chromosomes. We asked whether the striking bipolar structure of C. elegans meiotic chromosomes is required for bipolarity of acentriolar female meiotic spindles by time-lapse imaging of mutants that lack cohesion between chromosomes. Both a spo-11 rec-8 coh-4 coh-3 quadruple mutant and a spo-11 rec-8 double mutant entered M phase with separated sister chromatids lacking any cohesion. However, the quadruple mutant formed an apolar spindle whereas the double mutant formed a bipolar spindle that segregated chromatids into two roughly equal masses. Residual non-cohesive COH-3/4-dependent cohesin on separated sister chromatids of the double mutant was sufficient to recruit haspin-dependent Aurora B kinase, which mediated bipolar spindle assembly in the apparent absence of chromosomal bipolarity. We hypothesized that cohesin-dependent Aurora B might activate or inhibit spindle assembly factors in a manner that would affect their localization on chromosomes and found that the chromosomal localization patterns of KLP-7 and CLS-2 correlated with Aurora B loading on chromosomes. These results demonstrate that cohesin is essential for spindle assembly and chromosome segregation independent of its role in sister chromatid cohesion.

Aurora A and cortical flows promote polarization and cytokinesis by inducing asymmetric ECT-2 accumulation

In the early Caenorhabditis elegans embryo, cell polarization and cytokinesis are interrelated yet distinct processes. Here, we sought to understand a poorly understood aspect of cleavage furrow positioning. Early C. elegans embryos deficient in the cytokinetic regulator centralspindlin form furrows, due to an inhibitory activity that depends on aster positioning relative to the polar cortices. Here, we show polar relaxation is associated with depletion of cortical ECT-2, a RhoGEF, specifically at the posterior cortex. Asymmetric ECT-2 accumulation requires intact centrosomes, Aurora A (AIR-1), and myosin-dependent cortical flows. Within a localization competent ECT-2 fragment, we identified three putative phospho-acceptor sites in the PH domain of ECT-2 that render ECT-2 responsive to inhibition by AIR-1. During both polarization and cytokinesis, our results suggest that centrosomal AIR-1 breaks symmetry via ECT-2 phosphorylation; this local inhibition of ECT-2 is amplified by myosin-driven flows that generate regional ECT-2 asymmetry. Together, these mechanisms cooperate to induce polarized assembly of cortical myosin, contributing to both embryo polarization and cytokinesis.

An acentriolar centrosome at the C. elegans ciliary base

In animal cells, the functions of the microtubule cytoskeleton are coordinated by centriole-based centrosomes via γ-tubulin complexes embedded in the pericentriolar material or PCM.¹ PCM assembly has been best studied in the context of mitosis, where centriolar SPD-2 recruits PLK-1, which in turn phosphorylates key scaffolding components like SPD-5 and CNN to promote expansion of the PCM polymer.^2-4 To what extent these mechanisms apply to centrosomes in interphase or in differentiated cells remains unclear.⁵ Here, we examine a novel type of centrosome found at the ciliary base of C. elegans sensory neurons, which we show plays important roles in neuronal morphogenesis, cellular trafficking, and ciliogenesis. These centrosomes display similar dynamic behavior to canonical, mitotic centrosomes, with a stable PCM scaffold and dynamically localized client proteins. Unusually, however, they are not organized by centrioles, which degenerate early in terminal differentiation.⁶ Yet, PCM not only persists but continues to grow with key scaffolding proteins including SPD-5 expressed under control of the RFX transcription factor DAF-19. This assembly occurs in the absence of the mitotic regulators SPD-2, AIR-1 and PLK-1, but requires tethering by PCMD-1, a protein which also plays a role in the initial, interphase recruitment of PCM in early embryos.⁷ These results argue for distinct mechanisms for mitotic and non-mitotic PCM assembly, with only the former requiring PLK-1 phosphorylation to drive rapid expansion of the scaffold polymer.

A degron-based strategy reveals new insights into Aurora B function in C. elegans

The widely conserved kinase Aurora B regulates important events during cell division. Surprisingly, recent work has uncovered a few functions of Aurora-family kinases that do not require kinase activity. Thus, understanding this important class of cell cycle regulators will require strategies to distinguish kinase-dependent from independent functions. Here, we address this need in C. elegans by combining germline-specific, auxin-induced Aurora B (AIR-2) degradation with the transgenic expression of kinase-inactive AIR-2. Through this approach, we find that kinase activity is essential for AIR-2’s major meiotic functions and also for mitotic chromosome segregation. Moreover, our analysis revealed insight into the assembly of the ring complex (RC), a structure that is essential for chromosome congression in C. elegans oocytes. AIR-2 localizes to chromosomes and recruits other components to form the RC. However, we found that while kinase-dead AIR-2 could load onto chromosomes, other components were not recruited. This failure in RC assembly appeared to be due to a loss of RC SUMOylation, suggesting that there is crosstalk between SUMOylation and phosphorylation in building the RC and implicating AIR-2 in regulating the SUMO pathway in oocytes. Similar conditional depletion approaches may reveal new insights into other cell cycle regulators.

During cell division, chromosomes must be accurately partitioned to ensure the proper distribution of genetic material. In mitosis, chromosomes are duplicated once and then divided once, generating daughter cells with the same amount of genetic material as the original cell. Conversely, during meiosis chromosomes are duplicated once and divided twice, to cut the chromosome number in half to generate eggs and sperm. One important protein that is required for both mitotic and meiotic chromosome segregation is the kinase Aurora B, which phosphorylates a variety of other cell division proteins. However, previous research has shown that some kinases have functions that are independent of their ability to phosphorylate other proteins. Thus, fully understanding how Aurora B regulates cell division requires methods to test whether its various functions require kinase activity. We designed and implemented such a strategy in the model organism C. elegans, by depleting Aurora B from meiotically and mitotically-dividing cells, leaving in place a kinase-inactive version. This work has lent insight into how Aurora B regulates cell division in C. elegans, and also serves as a proof of principle for our approach, which can now be applied to study other essential cell division kinases.

HIM-17 regulates the position of recombination events and GSP-1/2 localization to establish short arm identity on bivalents in meiosis

The position of recombination events established along chromosomes in early prophase I and the chromosome remodeling that takes place in late prophase I are intrinsically linked steps of meiosis that need to be tightly regulated to ensure accurate chromosome segregation and haploid gamete formation. Here, we show that RAD-51 foci, which form at the sites of programmed meiotic DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), exhibit a biased distribution toward off-centered positions along the chromosomes in wild-type Caenorhabditis elegans, and we identify two meiotic roles for chromatin-associated protein HIM-17 that ensure normal chromosome remodeling in late prophase I. During early prophase I, HIM-17 regulates the distribution of DSB-dependent RAD-51 foci and crossovers on chromosomes, which is critical for the formation of distinct chromosome subdomains (short and long arms of the bivalents) later during chromosome remodeling. During late prophase I, HIM-17 promotes the normal expression and localization of protein phosphatases GSP-1/2 to the surface of the bivalent chromosomes and may promote GSP-1 phosphorylation, thereby antagonizing Aurora B kinase AIR-2 loading on the long arms and preventing premature loss of sister chromatid cohesion. We propose that HIM-17 plays distinct roles at different stages during meiotic progression that converge to promote normal chromosome remodeling and accurate chromosome segregation.

C. elegans CLASP/CLS-2 negatively regulates membrane ingression throughout the oocyte cortex and is required for polar body extrusion

The requirements for oocyte meiotic cytokinesis during polar body extrusion are not well understood. In particular, the relationship between the oocyte meiotic spindle and polar body contractile ring dynamics remains largely unknown. We have used live cell imaging and spindle assembly defective mutants lacking the function of CLASP/CLS-2, kinesin-12/KLP-18, or katanin/MEI-1 to investigate the relationship between meiotic spindle structure and polar body extrusion in C. elegans oocytes. We show that spindle bipolarity and chromosome segregation are not required for polar body contractile ring formation and chromosome extrusion in klp-18 mutants. In contrast, oocytes with similarly severe spindle assembly defects due to loss of CLS-2 or MEI-1 have penetrant and distinct polar body extrusion defects: CLS-2 is required early for contractile ring assembly or stability, while MEI-1 is required later for contractile ring constriction. We also show that CLS-2 both negatively regulates membrane ingression throughout the oocyte cortex during meiosis I, and influences the dynamics of the central spindle-associated proteins Aurora B/AIR-2 and MgcRacGAP/CYK-4. We suggest that proper regulation by CLS-2 of both oocyte cortical stiffness and central spindle protein dynamics may influence contractile ring assembly during polar body extrusion in C. elegans oocytes.

Aurora A inhibition disrupts chromosome condensation and spindle assembly during the first embryonic division in pigs

As common overexpression of Aurora A in various tumours, much attention has focused on its function in inducing cancer, and its value in cancer therapeutics, considerably less is known regarding its role in the first cleavage division of mammalian embryos. Here, we highlight an indispensable role of Aurora A during the first mitotic division progression of pig embryos just after meiosis. The expression and spatiotemporal localization of Aurora A were initially assessed in pig embryos during the first mitotic division by Western blot analysis and indirect immunofluorescent staining. Then, the potential role of Aurora A was further evaluated using a highly selective Aurora A inhibitor, MLN8054, during this mitotic progression in pig embryos. Aurora A was found to express and exhibit a specific dynamic intracellular localization pattern during the first mitotic division in pig embryos. Aurora A was diffused in the cytoplasm at the prophase stage, and then exhibited a dynamic intracellular localization which was tightly associated with the chromosome and spindle dynamics throughout subsequent mitotic phases. Inhibition of Aurora A by MLN8054 treatment led to the failure of the first cleavage, with the majority of embryos being arrested in prophase of the mitotic division. Further subcellular structure examination showed that Aurora A inhibition not only led to the failure of spindle microtubule assembly, but also resulted in severe defects in chromosome condensation, accompanied by an obvious decrease in p-TACC3(S558) expression during the prophase of the first mitosis. Together, these results illustrated that Aurora A is crucial for both spindle assembly and chromosome condensation during the first mitotic division in pig embryos, and that the regulation of Aurora A may be associated with its effects on p-TACC3(S558) expression.

Gamma radiation induces life stage-dependent reprotoxicity in Caenorhabditis elegans via impairment of spermatogenesis

The current study investigated life stage, tissue and cell dependent sensitivity to ionizing radiation of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Results showed that irradiation of post mitotic L4 stage larvae induced no significant effects with respect to mortality, morbidity or reproduction at either acute dose ≤6 Gy (1500 mGy·h^-1) or chronic exposure ≤15 Gy (≤100 mGy·h^-1). In contrast, chronic exposure from the embryo to the L4-young adult stage caused a dose and dose-rate dependent reprotoxicity with 43% reduction in total brood size at 6.7 Gy (108 mGy·h^-1). Systematic irradiation of the different developmental stages showed that the most sensitive life stage was L1 to young L4. Exposure during these stages was associated with dose-rate dependent genotoxic effects, resulting in a 1.8 to 2 fold increase in germ cell apoptosis in larvae subjected to 40 or 100 mGy·h^-1, respectively. This was accompanied by a dose-rate dependent reduction in the number of spermatids, which was positively correlated to the reprotoxic effect (0.99, PCC). RNAseq analysis of nematodes irradiated from L1 to L4 stage revealed a significant enrichment of differentially expressed genes related to both male and hermaphrodite reproductive processes. Gene network analysis revealed effects related to down-regulation of genes required for spindle formation and sperm meiosis/maturation, including smz-1, smz-2 and htas-1. Furthermore, the expression of a subset of 28 set-17 regulated Major Sperm Proteins (MSP) required for spermatid production was correlated (R² 0.80) to the reduction in reproduction and the number of spermatids. Collectively these observations corroborate the impairment of spermatogenesis as the major cause of gamma radiation induced life-stage dependent reprotoxic effect. Furthermore, the progeny of irradiated nematodes showed significant embryonal DNA damage that was associated with persistent effect on somatic growth. Unexpectedly, these nematodes maintained much of their reproductive capacity in spite of the reduced growth.

Genome-wide differential expression of long noncoding RNAs and mRNAs in ovarian follicles of two different chicken breeds

Bashang long-tail chickens are an indigenous breed with dual purpose in China (meat and eggs) but have low egg laying performance. To improve the low egg laying performance, a genome-wide analysis of mRNAs and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) from Bashang long-tail chickens and Hy-Line brown layers was performed. A total of 16,354 mRNAs and 8691 lncRNAs were obtained from ovarian follicles. Between the breeds, 160 mRNAs and 550 lncRNAs were found to be significantly differentially expressed. Integrated network analysis suggested some differentially expressed genes were involved in ovarian follicular development through oocyte meiosis, progesterone-mediated oocyte maturation, and cell cycle. The impact of lncRNAs on cis and trans target genes, indicating some lncRNAs may play important roles in ovarian follicular development. The current results provided a catalog of chicken ovarian follicular lncRNAs and genes for further study to understand their roles in regulation of egg laying performance.

14-3-3 regulation of Ncd reveals a new mechanism for targeting proteins to the spindle in oocytes

The meiotic spindle is formed without centrosomes in a large volume of oocytes. Local activation of crucial spindle proteins around chromosomes is important for formation and maintenance of a bipolar spindle in oocytes. We found that phosphodocking 14-3-3 proteins stabilize spindle bipolarity in Drosophila melanogaster oocytes. A critical 14-3-3 target is the minus end-directed motor Ncd (human HSET; kinesin-14), which has well-documented roles in stabilizing a bipolar spindle in oocytes. Phospho docking by 14-3-3 inhibits the microtubule binding activity of the nonmotor Ncd tail. Further phosphorylation by Aurora B kinase can release Ncd from this inhibitory effect of 14-3-3. As Aurora B localizes to chromosomes and spindles, 14-3-3 facilitates specific association of Ncd with spindle microtubules by preventing Ncd from binding to nonspindle microtubules in oocytes. Therefore, 14-3-3 translates a spatial cue provided by Aurora B to target Ncd selectively to the spindle within the large volume of oocytes.

Specialize and Divide (Twice): Functions of Three Aurora Kinase Homologs in Mammalian Oocyte Meiotic Maturation

The aurora kinases (AURKs) comprise an evolutionarily conserved family of serine/threonine kinases involved in mitosis and meiosis. While most mitotic cells express two AURK isoforms (AURKA and AURKB), mammalian germ cells also express a third, AURKC. Although much is known about the functions of the kinases in mitosis, less is known about how the three isoforms function to coordinate meiosis. This review is aimed at describing what is known about the three isoforms in female meiosis, the similarities and differences between kinase functions, and speculates as to why mammalian germ cells require expression of three AURKs instead of two.

Meiotic spindle assembly and chromosome segregation in oocytes

Centrosomes play a key role in organizing the microtubule spindle that separates chromosomes during mitosis. Bennabi et al. review how microtubule spindle formation and chromosomal segregation also occur in oocytes during cell division by meiosis despite the absence of centrosomes.

Oocytes accumulate maternal stores (proteins, mRNAs, metabolites, etc.) during their growth in the ovary to support development after fertilization. To preserve this cytoplasmic maternal inheritance, they accomplish the difficult task of partitioning their cytoplasm unequally while dividing their chromosomes equally. Added to this complexity, most oocytes, for reasons still speculative, lack the major microtubule organizing centers that most cells use to assemble and position their spindles, namely canonical centrosomes. In this review, we will address recent work on the mechanisms of meiotic spindle assembly and chromosome alignment/segregation in female gametes to try to understand the origin of errors of oocyte meiotic divisions. The challenge of oocyte divisions appears indeed not trivial because in both mice and humans oocyte meiotic divisions are prone to chromosome segregation errors, a leading cause of frequent miscarriages and congenital defects.

Assembly of Caenorhabditis elegans acentrosomal spindles occurs without evident microtubule-organizing centers and requires microtubule sorting by KLP-18/kinesin-12 and MESP-1

Female reproductive cells of most species lack centrosomes, but how spindles form in their absence is poorly understood. Study of oocytes in Caenorhabditis elegans uncovers new steps in this process and reveals mechanisms required for acentrosomal spindle bipolarity via studies of two proteins, KLP-18/kinesin-12 and MESP-1.

Although centrosomes contribute to spindle formation in most cell types, oocytes of many species are acentrosomal and must organize spindles in their absence. Here we investigate this process in Caenorhabditis elegans, detailing how acentrosomal spindles form and revealing mechanisms required to establish bipolarity. Using high-resolution imaging, we find that in meiosis I, microtubules initially form a “cage-like” structure inside the disassembling nuclear envelope. This structure reorganizes so that minus ends are sorted to the periphery of the array, forming multiple nascent poles that then coalesce until bipolarity is achieved. In meiosis II, microtubules nucleate in the vicinity of chromosomes but then undergo similar sorting and pole formation events. We further show that KLP-18/kinesin-12 and MESP-1, previously shown to be required for spindle bipolarity, likely contribute to bipolarity by sorting microtubules. After their depletion, minus ends are not sorted outward at the early stages of spindle assembly and instead converge. These proteins colocalize on microtubules, are interdependent for localization, and can interact, suggesting that they work together. We propose that KLP-18/kinesin-12 and MESP-1 form a complex that functions to sort microtubules of mixed polarity into a configuration in which minus ends are away from the chromosomes, enabling formation of nascent poles.

Oocyte Meiotic Spindle Assembly and Function

Gametogenesis in animal oocytes reduces the diploid genome content of germline precursors to a haploid state in gametes by discarding ¾ of the duplicated chromosomes through a sequence of two meiotic cell divisions called meiosis I and II. The assembly of the microtubule-based spindle structure that mediates this reduction in genome content remains poorly understood compared to our knowledge of mitotic spindle assembly and function. In this review, we consider the diversity of oocyte meiotic spindle assembly and structure across animal phylogeny, review recent advances in our understanding of how animal oocytes assemble spindles in the absence of the centriole-based microtubule-organizing centers that dominate mitotic spindle assembly, and discuss different models for how chromosomes are captured and moved to achieve chromosome segregation during oocyte meiotic cell division.