Permitted and restricted steps of human kinetochore assembly in mitotic cell extracts

Binding site maturation modulated by molecular density underlies Ndc80 binding to kinetochore receptor CENP-T

Macromolecular assembly depends on tightly regulated pairwise binding interactions that are selectively favored at assembly sites while being disfavored in the soluble phase. This selective control can arise due to molecular density-enhanced binding, as recently found for the kinetochore scaffold protein CENP-T. When clustered, CENP-T recruits markedly more Ndc80 complexes than its monomeric counterpart, but the underlying molecular basis remains elusive. Here, we use quantitative in vitro assays to reveal two distinct mechanisms driving this behavior. First, Ndc80 binding to CENP-T is a two-step process: initially, Ndc80 molecules rapidly associate and dissociate from disordered N-terminal binding sites on CENP-T. Over time, these sites undergo maturation, resulting in stronger Ndc80 retention. Second, we find that this maturation transition is regulated by a kinetic barrier that is sensitive to the molecular environment. In the soluble phase, binding site maturation is slow, but within CENP-T clusters, this process is markedly accelerated. Notably, the two Ndc80 binding sites in human CENP-T exhibit distinct maturation rates and environmental sensitivities, which correlate with their different amino acid content and predicted binding conformations. This clustering-induced maturation is evident in dividing human cells, suggesting a distinct regulatory entry point for controlling kinetochore assembly. We propose that the tunable acceleration of binding site maturation by molecular crowding may represent a general mechanism for promoting the formation of macromolecular structures.

Higher-order protein assembly controls kinetochore formation

To faithfully segregate chromosomes during vertebrate mitosis, kinetochore-microtubule interactions must be restricted to a single site on each chromosome. Prior work on pair-wise kinetochore protein interactions has been unable to identify the mechanisms that prevent outer kinetochore formation in regions with a low density of CENP-A nucleosomes. To investigate the impact of higher-order assembly on kinetochore formation, we generated oligomers of the inner kinetochore protein CENP-T using two distinct, genetically engineered systems in human cells. Although individual CENP-T molecules interact poorly with outer kinetochore proteins, oligomers that mimic centromeric CENP-T density trigger the robust formation of functional, cytoplasmic kinetochore-like particles. Both in cells and in vitro, each molecule of oligomerized CENP-T recruits substantially higher levels of outer kinetochore components than monomeric CENP-T molecules. Our work suggests that the density dependence of CENP-T restricts outer kinetochore recruitment to centromeres, where densely packed CENP-A recruits a high local concentration of inner kinetochore proteins.

Measuring and modeling forces generated by microtubules

Tubulins are essential proteins, which are conserved across all eukaryotic species. They polymerize to form microtubules, cytoskeletal components of paramount importance for cellular mechanics. The microtubules combine an extraordinarily high flexural rigidity and a non-equilibrium behavior, manifested in their intermittent assembly and disassembly. These chemically fueled dynamics allow microtubules to generate significant pushing and pulling forces at their ends to reposition intracellular organelles, remodel membranes, bear compressive forces, and transport chromosomes during cell division. In this article, we review classical and recent studies, which have allowed the quantification of microtubule-generated forces. The measurements, to which we owe most of the quantitative information about microtubule forces, were carried out in biochemically reconstituted systems in vitro. We also discuss how mathematical and computational modeling has contributed to the interpretations of these results and shaped our understanding of the mechanisms of force production by tubulin polymerization and depolymerization.

CLASP2 recognizes tubulins exposed at the microtubule plus-end in a nucleotide state-sensitive manner

CLASPs (cytoplasmic linker-associated proteins) are ubiquitous stabilizers of microtubule dynamics, but their molecular targets at the microtubule plus-end are not understood. Using DNA origami-based reconstructions, we show that clusters of human CLASP2 form a load-bearing bond with terminal non-GTP tubulins at the stabilized microtubule tip. This activity relies on the unconventional TOG2 domain of CLASP2, which releases its high-affinity bond with non-GTP dimers upon their conversion into polymerization-competent GTP-tubulins. The ability of CLASP2 to recognize nucleotide-specific tubulin conformation and stabilize the catastrophe-promoting non-GTP tubulins intertwines with the previously underappreciated exchange between GDP and GTP at terminal tubulins. We propose that TOG2-dependent stabilization of sporadically occurring non-GTP tubulins represents a distinct molecular mechanism to suppress catastrophe at the freely assembling microtubule ends and to promote persistent tubulin assembly at the load-bearing tethered ends, such as at the kinetochores in dividing cells.