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Cravotto C, Fabiano-Tixier AS, Claux O, Abert-Vian M, Tabasso S, Cravotto G, Chemat F. Towards Substitution of Hexane as Extraction Solvent of Food Products and Ingredients with No Regrets. Foods 2022; 11:3412. [PMID: 36360023 PMCID: PMC9655691 DOI: 10.3390/foods11213412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Hexane is a solvent used extensively in the food industry for the extraction of various products such as vegetable oils, fats, flavours, fragrances, colour additives or other bioactive ingredients. As it is classified as a "processing aid", it does not have to be declared on the label under current legislation. Therefore, although traces of hexane may be found in final products, especially in processed products, its presence is not known to consumers. However, hexane, and in particular the n-hexane isomer, has been shown to be neurotoxic to humans and has even been listed as a cause of occupational diseases in several European countries since the 1970s. In order to support the European strategy for a toxic-free environment (and toxic-free food), it seemed important to collect scientific information on this substance by reviewing the available literature. This review contains valuable information on the nature and origin of the solvent hexane, its applications in the food industry, its toxicological evaluation and possible alternatives for the extraction of natural products. Numerous publications have investigated the toxicity of hexane, and several studies have demonstrated the presence of its toxic metabolite 2,5-hexanedione (2,5-HD) in the urine of the general, non-occupationally exposed population. Surprisingly, a tolerable daily intake (TDI) has apparently never been established by any food safety authority. Since hexane residues are undoubtedly found in various foods, it seems more than necessary to clearly assess the risks associated with this hidden exposure. A clear indication on food packaging and better information on the toxicity of hexane could encourage the industry to switch towards one of the numerous other alternative extraction methods already developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Cravotto
- GREEN Extraction Team, INRAE, UMR 408, Avignon University, F-84000 Avignon, France
| | | | - Ombéline Claux
- GREEN Extraction Team, INRAE, UMR 408, Avignon University, F-84000 Avignon, France
| | - Maryline Abert-Vian
- GREEN Extraction Team, INRAE, UMR 408, Avignon University, F-84000 Avignon, France
| | - Silvia Tabasso
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 9, 10125 Turin, Italy
| | - Giancarlo Cravotto
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 9, 10125 Turin, Italy
| | - Farid Chemat
- GREEN Extraction Team, INRAE, UMR 408, Avignon University, F-84000 Avignon, France
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Zendehdel R, Parsarad M, Asgari Gandomani E, Panjali Z, Rafieepour A, Mohammadi Z, Moradpour Z, Vahabi M, Mohammad Alipour M, Gholamiarjenaki R. Risk assessment of chemical mixtures by benchmark dose-principle component analysis approach in occupational exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:58781-58786. [PMID: 34120293 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-14815-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Mixtures of organic solvents are widely used in industrial processes. Risk assessment for chemical co-exposure has always been a challenge in past years. The present study aims to employ principle component analysis (PCA) to produce an entry for benchmark dose approximation in shoemakers based on the color vision effect. A total of 134 subjects consisting of 67 shoemakers and 67 staff workers were employed for Benchmark Dose (BMD) evaluation. Occupational exposure to benzene, toluene, xylene, and n-hexane was evaluated using NIOSH 1501 and OSHA ID-07 methods. The color vision effect was quantified using Lanthony D-15 desaturated test (D-15d). PCA was run for cumulative exposure dose (CED) of the solvents by MATLAB 2018. Finally, the lowest 95% confidence limit of the benchmark dose (BMDL) was determined using US EPA benchmark dose software (BMDS) version 3.2.1. The color confusion index (CCI) level in shoemakers increased from 1 to 1.15 by a median of 1.07. There was a significant difference in the CCI level (p value<0.0001) between exposed and control subjects. The first score of PCA was used as intake dose level (IDL) in solvents co-exposure. Using BMD analysis, the log-logistics model was fitted with a p-value> 0.1 and the lowest BMDL level. BMDL level was evaluated at 1.63, 10.25, 2.21, and 3.35 ppm for benzene, toluene, xylene, and n-hexane, respectively. The results showed a risk of color vision effect with co-exposure to solvents at different levels in the occupational exposure standards. In conclusion BMDL-PCA approach has been suggested for the risk assessment of chemical co-exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rezvan Zendehdel
- Environmental and Occupational Hazards Control Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering and Safety, School of Public Health and Safety, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Majid Parsarad
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering and Safety, School of Public Health and Safety, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Elham Asgari Gandomani
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering and Safety, School of Public Health and Safety, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Panjali
- Department of Occupational Health and Safety, School of Health and Medical Engineering, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Athena Rafieepour
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering and Safety, School of Public Health and Safety, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Mohammadi
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering and Safety, School of Public Health and Safety, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Moradpour
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering and Safety, School of Public Health and Safety, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masoomeh Vahabi
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering and Safety, School of Public Health and Safety, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Maryam Mohammad Alipour
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering, Deputy Chancellor of Health, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
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Shahy EM, Ibrahim KS, Mahdy-Abdallah H, Taha MM, Saad-Hussien A, Hafez SF. Neurotoxicity of organic solvents with emphasis on the role of iron. JOURNAL OF COMPLEMENTARY & INTEGRATIVE MEDICINE 2021; 18:527-533. [PMID: 33544507 DOI: 10.1515/jcim-2019-0103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to organic solvents (OS) adversely affects different body systems, the central and peripheral nervous systems being the most susceptible ones. OBJECTIVES This study investigated the role of iron in association with some neurotransmitters for diagnosis of neurotoxicity of OS. METHODS The study included 90 workers, 50 occupationally exposed to OS and 40 representing control group. Blood samples were collected from the included subjects for determination of serum iron, total iron binding capacity (TIBC), serotonin and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). RESULTS Revealed reduction in serotonin level and serum iron. However, the elevation in GABA and TIBC was observed. The duration of exposure was significantly correlated with iron and serotonin while it was positively correlated with GABA and TIBC. CONCLUSIONS Elevated GABA and TIBC with decreased serotonin and serum iron can be used as early diagnostic measures to detect the neurotoxic effects of OS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eman M Shahy
- Environmental Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Environmental & Occupational Medicine Department, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Khadiga S Ibrahim
- Environmental Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Environmental & Occupational Medicine Department, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Heba Mahdy-Abdallah
- Industrial Medicine, Environmental & Occupational Medicine Department, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mona M Taha
- Environmental Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Environmental & Occupational Medicine Department, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Amal Saad-Hussien
- Environmental & Preventive Medicine, Environmental & Occupational Medicine Department, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Salwa F Hafez
- Industrial Medicine, Environmental & Occupational Medicine Department, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
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Li M, Yang T, Gao L, Xu H. An inadvertent issue of human retina exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals: A safety assessment. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 264:128484. [PMID: 33022499 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are a group of chemical compounds that present a considerable public health problem due to their pervasiveness and associations with chronic diseases. EDCs can interrupt the endocrine system and interfere with hormone homeostasis, leading to abnormalities in human physiology. Much attention has been focused on the adverse effects EDCs have on the reproductive system, neurogenesis, neuroendocrine system, and thyroid dysfunction. The eye is usually directly exposed to the surrounding environment; however, the influences of EDCs on the eye have received comparatively little attention. Ocular diseases, such as ocular surface diseases and retinal diseases, have been implicated in hormone deficiency or excess. Epidemiologic studies have shown that EDC exposure not only causes ocular surface disorders, such as dry eye, but also associates with visual deficits and retinopathy. EDCs can pass through the human blood-retinal barrier and enter the neural retina, and can then accumulate in the retina. The retina is an embryologic extension of the central nervous system, and is extremely sensitive and vulnerable to EDCs that could be passed across the placenta during critical periods of retinal development. Subtle alterations in the retinal development process usually result in profound immediate, long-term, and delayed effects late in life. This review, based on extensive literature survey, briefly summarizes the current knowledge about the impact of representative manufactured EDCs on retinal toxicity, including retinal structure alterations and dysfunction. We also highlight the potential mechanism of action of EDCs on the retina, and the predictive retinal models of EDC exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minghui Li
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Tian Yang
- Department of Cold Environmental Medicine, College of High Altitude Military Medicine, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Lixiong Gao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Third Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Haiwei Xu
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, China.
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Spencer PS. Neuroprotein Targets of γ-Diketone Metabolites of Aliphatic and Aromatic Solvents That Induce Central-Peripheral Axonopathy. Toxicol Pathol 2020; 48:411-421. [PMID: 32162603 DOI: 10.1177/0192623320910960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Peripheral neuropathy associated with chronic occupational and deliberate overexposure to neurotoxic organic solvents results from axonal degeneration in the central and peripheral nervous system. Human and experimental studies show that axonopathy is triggered by the action of neuroprotein-reactive γ-diketone metabolites formed from exposure to certain aliphatic solvents (n-hexane, 2-hexanone) and aromatic compounds (1,2-diethylbenzene, 1,2-4-triethylbenzene, 6-acetyl-1,1,4,4-tetramethyl-7-ethyl-1,2,3,4-tetralin). Neuroprotein susceptibility is related primarily to their differential content of lysine, the ∊-amino group of which is targeted by γ-diketones. Specific neuroprotein targets have been identified, and the sequence of molecular mechanisms leading to axonal pathology has been illuminated. While occupational n-hexane neuropathy continues to be reported, lessons learned from its experimental study may have relevance to other causes of peripheral neuropathy, including those associated with aging and diabetes mellitus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter S Spencer
- Oregon Institute of Occupational Health Sciences and Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
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Bates MN, Reed BR, Liu S, Eisen EA, Hammond SK. Solvent exposure and cognitive function in automotive technicians. Neurotoxicology 2016; 57:22-30. [PMID: 27545874 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2016.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Revised: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Automotive technicians are commonly exposed to organic and chlorinated solvents, particularly through use of cleaning products. Occupational solvent exposures have been associated with deficits in cognitive function but, to our knowledge, no previous studies have investigated automotive technicians. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether previous exposures to n-hexane, in particular, or general solvents posed a persistent neurotoxic hazard to automotive workers. Enrolled in the study were 830 San Francisco Bay Area automotive repair workers. Each participant underwent a battery of cognitive function tests to investigate central nervous system impairment, with a primary focus on the domains of psychomotor speed, fine motor function, memory and mood. Cognitive test results regressed against estimated hexane and total solvent exposures showed little evidence of associations. Exposures to both solvents and hexane were well below the occupational exposure limits. Our results provide some reassurance about persistent neuropsychological effects in automotive workers who use solvent-based products and those who previously used hexane-containing automotive cleaning products, since this solvent is believed no longer to be used in automotive cleaning products. The lack of observed effect in this study may be attributable to low exposures, or it may reflect improved cognitive function since hexane use in automotive cleaning products was discontinued. However, impacts on results of exposure misclassification and/or the healthy worker survivor effect cannot be discounted. Irrespective of the outcome of this study, the main known neurologic effect of n-hexane is peripheral neuropathy, and such an association in automotive technicians is not excluded by these results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael N Bates
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
| | - Bruce R Reed
- Department of Neurology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Sa Liu
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Ellen A Eisen
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - S Katharine Hammond
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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