Chemotherapy versus hormonal treatment in platinum- and paclitaxel-refractory ovarian cancer: a randomised trial of the German Arbeitsgemeinschaft Gynaekologische Onkologie (AGO) Study Group Ovarian Cancer

Immunohistochemical Expression of LHRH Receptor in Different Compartments of Female Genital Tract in Patients With Endometrial Cancer

Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone receptor (LHRHR) expression has been reported in various cancers, including endometrial neoplasms. Thus, LHRHR provides a potential point for therapeutic approach using LHRH analogs as carrier molecules for chemotherapeutic agents in this cancer population. However, clinical data did not prove any potential benefits for patients. We decided to assess LHRHR expression in patients with endometrial cancer to explain possible lack of efficacy in previous clinical reports. LHRHR expression was assessed immunohistochemically in different anatomic and histogenetic compartments of female genital tract of patients with endometrial cancer. The study sample consisted of paraffin tissue blocks obtained from patients who has undergone primary surgery owing to endometrial cancer. Strong LHRHR expression was found in endometrial cancer, fallopian tube, and concurrent atypical hyperplasia. Interestingly, LHRHR expression showed significant differences depending on the respective compartment of the ovary analyzed. Level of LHRHR expression in patients with primary advanced and unresectable disease, particularly in certain ovarian compartments may be substantially lower, which may influence the use of new targeted therapy regimens. The studies on secondary Müllerian system compartment and its hormonal receptor status may be crucial to understand mechanisms of lack of efficacy of LHRH hybrid molecules anti-cancer treatment.

Hormone therapy for ovarian cancer: Emphasis on mechanisms and applications (Review)

Ovarian cancer (OC) remains the leading cause of mortality due to gynecological malignancies. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that steroid hormones released from the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis can play a role in stimulating or inhibiting OC progression, with gonadotropins, estrogens and androgens promoting OC progression, while gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and progesterone may be protective factors in OC. Experimental studies have indicated that hormone receptors are expressed in OC cells and mediate the growth stimulatory or growth inhibitory effects of hormones on these cells. Hormone therapy agents have been evaluated in a number of clinical trials. The majority of these trials were conducted in patients with relapsed or refractory OC with average efficacy and limited side-effects. A better understanding of the mechanisms through which hormones affect cell growth may improve the efficacy of hormone therapy. In the present review article, the role of hormones (GnRH, gonadotropins, androgens, estrogens and progestins) and their receptors in OC tumorigenesis, and hormonal therapy in OC treatment is discussed and summarized.

Role of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) in Ovarian Cancer

The hypothalamus–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis is the endocrine regulation system that controls the woman’s cycle. The gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) plays the central role. In addition to the gonadotrophic cells of the pituitary, GnRH receptors are expressed in other reproductive organs, such as the ovary and in tumors originating from the ovary. In ovarian cancer, GnRH is involved in the regulation of proliferation and metastasis. The effects on ovarian tumors can be indirect or direct. GnRH acts indirectly via the HPG axis and directly via GnRH receptors on the surface of ovarian cancer cells. In this systematic review, we will give an overview of the role of GnRH in ovarian cancer development, progression and therapy.

Effects of leuprorelin for the treatment of recurrent gynecological cancer by assessment including self-administered quality-of-life questionnaire

AIM

To investigate the effects of leuprorelin using a self-administered quality-of-life (QOL) questionnaire in patients with recurrent gynecological cancer.

METHODS

Records of patients who received 3.75 mg leuprorelin every 4 weeks for the treatment of recurrent gynecological cancer were retrospectively reviewed. The physical domain of the QOL questionnaire, Care Notebook, was used to assess physical symptoms. Symptom deterioration was defined as a ≥10-point increase in baseline score; otherwise, symptoms were defined as controlled. Radiological and serological responses were evaluated according to the 2011 Gynecological Cancer Intergroup criteria.

RESULTS

From 2007 to 2015, 25 patients were administered leuprorelin for the treatment of epithelial ovarian cancer, granulosa cell tumor, endometrial cancer, endometrial stromal sarcoma and clear cell cervical cancer (in 13, 3, 6, 2 and 1 patients, respectively). Twenty patients had received a median of three lines (range 1-12 lines) of chemotherapy. Ten patients had progressive disease during their previous round of chemotherapy. Twenty patients completed the questionnaire every 4 weeks. Following leuprorelin treatment for 8 weeks, the symptom and disease control rates were 65% (13/20) and 44% (11/25), respectively. Two patients, one each with granulosa cell tumor and endometrial cancer, had stable disease at 6 months. Among the 20 patients who completed the QOL questionnaire, symptom control and disease control at 8 weeks showed a significant correlation (P = 0.016).

CONCLUSION

Leuprorelin had minimal anticancer activity. The physical domain of the QOL questionnaire could be used to assess effects of hormonal treatment.

Chemotherapy vs tamoxifen in platinum-resistant ovarian cancer: a phase III, randomised, multicentre trial (Ovaresist)

Background:

Chemotherapy in platinum-resistant ovarian cancer (PROC) aims for palliation and prolonging of progression-free survival (PFS). This study compares Health-related Quality of Life (HRQoL) and efficacy between single-agent chemotherapy and tamoxifen in PROC.

Methods:

Patients with PROC were randomised (2 : 1) to chemotherapy (weekly paclitaxel 80 mg m⁻² or four weekly pegylated liposomal doxorubicin 40 mg m⁻²) or tamoxifen 40 mg daily. The primary end point was HRQoL. Secondary end points were PFS by RECIST and overall survival (OS).

Results:

Between March 2002 and December 2007, 156 and 82 patients were randomised to chemotherapy and tamoxifen, respectively. In the chemotherapy arm, a significantly larger proportion of patients experienced a worsening in their social functioning. There was no difference in the proportion of patients experiencing improvement of gastrointestinal symptoms. Median PFS on tamoxifen was 8.3 weeks (95% CI, 8.0–10.4) compared with 12.7 weeks (95% CI, 9.0–16.3) on chemotherapy (HR, 1.54; 95% CI, 1.16–2.05; log-rank P=0.003). There was no difference in OS between the treatment arms.

Conclusions:

Patients on chemotherapy had longer PFS but experienced more toxicity and poorer HRQoL compared with tamoxifen. Control over gastrointestinal symptoms was not better on chemotherapy. These data are important for patient counselling and highlight the need to incorporate HRQoL end points in studies of PROC.

Luteinising hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) agonists for the treatment of relapsed epithelial ovarian cancer

BACKGROUND

Ovarian cancer is seventh most common cancer in women worldwide. Approximately 1.3% of women will be diagnosed with ovarian cancer at some point during their life time. The majority of tumours arise from surface of the ovary (epithelial). Two thirds of these women will present with advanced disease, requiring aggressive treatment, which includes debulking surgery (removal of as much disease as possible) and chemotherapy. However, most women (75%) with advanced epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) will relapse following surgery and chemotherapy. Patients who relapse are treated with either platinum or non-platinum drugs and this is dependent on the platinum-sensitivity and platinum-free interval. These drug regimens are generally well-tolerated although there are potential severe side effects. New treatments that can be used to treat recurrence or prevent disease progression after first-line or subsequent chemotherapy are important, especially those with a low toxicity profile. Hormones such as luteinising hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) agonists have been used in the treatment of relapsed EOC. Some studies have shown objective remissions, while other studies have shown little or no benefit. Most small studies report a better side-effect profile for LHRH agonists when compared to standard chemotherapeutic agents used in EOC.

OBJECTIVES

To compare the effectiveness and safety of luteinising hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) agonists with chemotherapeutic agents or placebo in relapsed epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC).

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Gynaecological Cancer Group trials register, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE and Embase up to January 2016. We also searched registers of clinical trials and abstracts of scientific meetings.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) that compared LHRH agonists with chemotherapeutic agents or placebo in relapsed EOC.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently assessed whether relevant studies met the inclusion criteria, retrieved data and assessed risk of bias.

MAIN RESULTS

Two studies, including 97 women, met our inclusion criteria: one assessed LHRH agonist (leuprorelin) use in relapsed (platinum-resistant and platinum-refractory) EOC in comparison with a chemotherapeutic agent (treosulfan) (Du Bois 2002); the other examined LHRH agonist (decapeptyl) versus a placebo (Currie 1994). Since both studies had different control groups, a meta-analysis was not possible.There may be little or no difference between treatment with leuprorelin or treosulfan in overall survival (OS) (hazard ratio (HR) 0.98, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.58 to 1.67; very low-quality evidence) or progression-free survival (PFS) at six and 12 months (risk ratio (RR) 0.61, 95% CI 0.22 to 1.68, and RR 0.65, 95% CI 0.12 to 3.66; very low-quality evidence), respectively (Du Bois 2002). The duration of follow-up was 2.5 years and quality of life (QoL) was not reported in this study.Alopecia and fatigue were probably more common with treosulfan than leuprorelin (alopecia RR 0.32, 95% CI 0.12 to 0.91 (very low-quality evidence)). There may be little or no difference in other Grade 3/4 side effects: nausea and vomiting (RR 0.65, 95% CI 0.12 to 3.66 (very low-quality evidence)); neurotoxicity (RR 0.32, 95% CI 0.01 to 7.71 (very low-quality evidence)) and neutropenia (RR 0.97, 95% 0.06 to 14.97 (very low-quality evidence)),The Currie 1994 study, which compared decapeptyl treatment with placebo, reported mean PFS of 16 weeks verus 11.2 weeks, respectively. No relative effects measures or P value at a particular time point were reported. Overall survival (OS) and QoL outcomes were not reported. In addition, adverse events were only mentioned for the decapeptyl group.Adverse events were incompletely reported (no adverse events in decapeptyl group, but not reported for the placebo group).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Based on this review of two small RCTs, there is not enough evidence to comment on the safety and effectiveness of LHRH agonists in the treatment of platinum-refractory and platinum-resistant (relapsed) EOC. Overall, the quality of evidence for all outcomes (including OS, PFS, QoL and adverse events) is very low.

Temsirolimus in women with platinum-refractory/resistant ovarian cancer or advanced/recurrent endometrial carcinoma. A phase II study of the AGO-study group (AGO-GYN8)

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate activity and toxicity of mTOR inhibitor temsirolimus in patients with platinum-refractory/resistant ovarian cancer (OC) or advanced/recurrent endometrial carcinoma (EC).

METHODS

Women with epithelial ovarian, fallopian tube or primary peritoneal cancer were eligible, when they had progression during treatment with a platinum based regimen or within 6 months after receiving a platinum based regimen and a previous taxane treatment. Women with advanced/recurrent EC, no longer amenable to curative surgery and/or radiotherapy were eligible when they had no previous or only adjuvant chemotherapy. Preceding endocrine therapy for metastatic/recurrent disease was allowed. Patients received weekly IV infusions of 25mg temsirolimus. Primary endpoint was progression free survival rate after 4 months (OC) or 6 months (EC). A two stage design was applied.

RESULTS

Forty-four patients (OC: n=22; EC: n=22) were enrolled and received temsirolimus treatment. Median age was 56 years (OC) or 63 years (EC). After eight weeks of treatment, 10 of 21 evaluable patients in the OC cohort and 8 of 20 evaluable patients in the EC cohort had progressive disease. Thus efficacy did not meet the predefined levels during the first stage of recruitment and the trial was stopped. Some patients in both cohorts had long lasting PFS (>7 months). Toxicity of temsirolimus was mild.

CONCLUSIONS

Temsirolimus treatment was well tolerated in our patients, but did not meet the predefined efficacy criteria. In our study as in other trials on rapalogs in OC or EC, a few patients had long lasting disease stabilisations.

Sex Steroid Hormone Receptor Expression Affects Ovarian Cancer Survival

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Although most ovarian cancers express estrogen (ER), progesterone (PR), and androgen (AR) receptors, they are currently not applied in clinical decision making. We explored the prognostic impact of sex steroid hormone receptor protein and mRNA expression on survival in epithelial ovarian cancer.

METHODS

Immunohistochemical stainings for ERα, ERβ, PR, and AR were assessed in relation to survival in 118 serous and endometrioid ovarian cancers. Expression of the genes encoding the four receptors was studied in relation to prognosis in the molecular subtypes of ovarian cancer in an independent data set, hypothesizing that the expression levels and prognostic impact may differ between the subtypes.

RESULTS

Expression of PR or AR protein was associated with improved 5-year progression-free (P=.001 for both) and overall survival (P<.001 for both, log-rank test). ERα and ERβ did not provide prognostic information. Patients whose tumors coexpressed PR and AR had the most favorable prognosis, and this effect was retained in multivariable analyses. Analyses of the corresponding genes using an independent data set revealed differences among the molecular subtypes, but no clear relationship between high coexpression of PGR and AR and prognosis.

CONCLUSIONS

A favorable outcome was seen for patients whose tumors coexpressed PR and AR. Gene expression data suggested variable effects in the different molecular subtypes. These findings demonstrate a prognostic role for PR and AR in ovarian cancer and support that tumors should be stratified based on molecular as well as histological subtypes in future studies investigating the role of endocrine treatment in ovarian cancer.

Estimation of expectedness: predictive accuracy of standard therapy outcomes in randomized phase 3 studies in epithelial ovarian cancer

BACKGROUND

The anticipated clinical outcome of the standard/control arm is an important parameter in the design of randomized phase 3 (RP3) trials to properly calculate sample size, power, and study duration. Changing patterns of care or variation in the study population enrolled may lead to a deviation from the initially anticipated outcome. The authors hypothesized that recent changes in patterns of care in epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) have led to challenges in correctly estimating the outcome of control groups.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was conducted for RP3 trials of EOC published between January 2000 and December 2010. The expected outcome of the control arm as well as the actual outcome achieved by this cohort was collected and a ratio (actual‐over‐expected ratio) was calculated. The estimation of outcome was deemed accurate if the outcome of the control arm was between 0.75 to 1.25 times the anticipated outcome.

RESULTS

A total of 35 trials were eligible for analysis. Fifteen trials had survival as the primary endpoint whereas 20 had a progression‐based primary endpoint. In total, 12 of 15 trials with a survival‐based endpoint significantly underestimated the outcome of the control arm, whereas only 4 of 20 trials with a progression‐based endpoint did. Studies with a survival endpoint underestimated outcome more frequently than those with a progression endpoint (P<.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Survival of the control arm has frequently been underestimated in recent EOC RP3 trials. This underestimation means that the initial statistical assumptions of these trials may have been inaccurate. Underestimating the outcome of the control arm may result in trials being underpowered to demonstrate the absolute benefit they were designed to show. Cancer 2015;121:413–422. © 2014 American Cancer Society.

The anticipated clinical outcome of the standard/control arm is an important parameter in the design of randomized phase 3 trials for the accurate calculation of sample size, power, and study duration but is often underestimated in ovarian cancer trials. Changing patterns of care and variations in enrolled study populations may result in a deviation from the anticipated outcome and subsequent inaccurate statistical assumptions.

Hormonal treatment in recurrent and metastatic gynaecological cancers: a review of the current literature

For many years hormonal treatment has played a role in the treatment of a selected group of patients with a variety of recurrent or metastatic gynaecological cancers, including ovarian and endometrial carcinomas, endometrial stromal sarcomas and granulosa cell tumours. Hormonal agents that are typically used include luteinizing-hormone-releasing hormone analogues, progestogens, selective oestrogen-receptor-modulating drugs such as tamoxifen, and more recently aromatase inhibitors. The rates of response to these drugs differ considerably depending on the tumour type, disease grade and stage as well as the type of drug used. Patients with granulosa cell tumours and endometrial stromal sarcomas have the highest response rates; owing to the rarity of these tumour types, the documented response rates are based on case reports and small series. Response rates in patients with recurrent and metastatic endometrial and ovarian carcinoma have been lower. It has been suggested that patients with well-differentiated and hormone-receptor-positive carcinomas are more likely to benefit from hormonal treatment. However, the data to support this are limited, and at times conflicting, with very few prospective studies to date. This review updates the evidence for the use of hormonal treatment in patients with potentially hormone responsive recurrent and metastatic gynaecological cancers.

Benefit of palliative chemotherapy and hospice enrollment in late-stage ovarian cancer patients

AIM

The ideal timing for transition to best supportive care (BSC) for ovarian cancer patients is not clear. We retrospectively assessed the survival benefit of continuing chemotherapy and hospice enrollment in late-stage ovarian cancer patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eligibility criteria included platinum and taxane treatment, clinical progression within 6 months of the last platinum dose, and progression during chemotherapy.

RESULTS

Of the 55 eligible patients (median overall survival after first becoming refractory [1st Ref], 96 days), 22 received chemotherapy (Chemo group), two received radiation therapy, and 13 had medical contraindications for subsequent chemotherapy. The remaining 18 patients (BSC group) were compared with the Chemo group. The Chemo and BSC groups had similar background characteristics, except for the rate of consultation with a regional palliative care physician before or within 1 week of 1st Ref (9% vs 50%, respectively). In multivariate analysis, chemotherapy (hazard ratio 0.251, P = 0.005) and hospice enrollment (hazard ratio, 0.274, P = 0.023) were predictive factors of survival after 1st Ref.

CONCLUSIONS

Chemotherapy after 1st Ref can be offered and hospice enrollment during the terminal stages is encouraged for recurrent ovarian cancer patients.

Hormonal therapy in epithelial ovarian cancer

The ovary is an endocrine and end organ. Hormones and their receptors have been associated with ovarian cancer and may be related to its causation. Some data suggest that hormonal therapies may have an effect on ovarian cancer in palliative settings. The most well studied anticancer drugs are tamoxifen, megestrol acetate, medroxyprogesterone acetate, leuprolide acetate, anastrozole and letrozole. Presently, no hormonal therapy is approved by the US FDA for the treatment of any type of ovarian malignancy or is listed as an active agent by any of the authoritative compendia. Owing to the endocrine associations with ovarian cancer, the minimal side effects of hormonal therapy and the demonstrated activity of hormonal therapies in other endocrine organ-associated malignancies, further study of hormonal therapies for ovarian cancer is warranted.

The role of hormonal factors and endocrine therapy in ovarian cancer

The efficacy of the second-line chemotherapy commonly used in both relapsed ovarian cancer patients and those with primary treatment failure remains unsatisfactory. This therapy has a small effect on survival, whereas associated toxicity may diminish the patient's quality of life.

Hormonal factors play a role in ovarian tumorigenesis, and inhibition of the stimulating effects of estrogens may exert a clinical benefit. The role of hormonal therapy as a palliative therapeutic alternative for ovarian cancer remains undetermined. This modality may result in long-term stabilization of disease in individual patients and less frequently in tumor remission.

In this article the role of hormonal factors and recent literature of various forms of hormonal therapy for ovarian cancer are presented.

Clinical trials and decision-making strategies for optimal treatment of relapsed ovarian cancer

The proportion of patients with advanced ovarian cancer who relapse has remained high and fairly constant over the last decade. Choosing treatment for recurrent ovarian cancer is complex. Many active therapeutic agents are available, and there are challenges in defining the optimal timing and sequencing of treatments. Furthermore, the explosion in the number of biological agents presents additional challenges in identifying their activity and place in the pathway of treatment. Establishing optimal treatment as monotherapy, or in combination with chemotherapy, or as maintenance treatment requires new approaches to trial design, selecting meaningful endpoints and conducting carefully conducted trials with translational studies. Patients with relapsed ovarian cancer can now survive several years; the aim is to increase this further.

Revisiting the role of antiandrogen strategies in ovarian cancer

Androgen receptors are frequently expressed in epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC). Their role in the development of EOC is not fully understood. In the present review we first discuss the epidemiological data linking a hyperandrogen state to a higher risk for ovarian cancer, second describe in vitro studies of the role of androgens in influencing the growth of EOC, and finally review the completed clinical trials with compounds that exploit the androgen axis in patients with ovarian cancer. The therapeutic approaches that inhibit androgen signaling have so far produced only modest response rates. In the light of new data regarding the role of androgen stimulation in the evolution of EOC and the emergence of new compounds used for the treatment of other hormone-driven malignancies, such as prostate and breast cancer, we provide suggestions for new studies of antiandrogen therapeutics in the treatment of EOC. A specific example is the new agent abiraterone. In addition, we propose a panel of molecules that could be assessed as potential biomarkers that may aid patient selection for this approach in the future.

Systemic therapy in recurrent ovarian cancer: current treatment options and new drugs

Most patients with ovarian cancer relapse despite aggressive surgery and platinum-taxane-based primary chemotherapy. Further treatment depends on prior response and progression-free interval. Monotherapy is indicated in patients with so-called platinum-resistant or -refractory ovarian cancer. The standard treatment for patients with platinum-sensitive recurrent ovarian cancer is platinum-based combination chemotherapy. Cytoreductive surgery is also a treatment option in such patients. Actual treatment options and strategies in recurrent ovarian cancer will also be discussed. Furthermore, this review focuses on new drugs in the treatment of primary and recurrent ovarian cancer.

Gonadotropin and steroid receptors as prognostic factors in advanced ovarian cancer: a retrospective study

INTRODUCTION

Ovarian cancer is a chemosensitive tumour, but two thirds of women have a recurrence during the follow- up, even after an optimal surgical debulking followed by chemotherapy with a platinum and a taxane compound. Cytotoxic drugs are used in a second- or third-line setting but tumour progression is the rule. Also patients with the same histology achieve different outcomes in terms of survival. We decided to study gonadotropin and steroid receptors and to consider if these histological markers could select patients with different prognosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In our study we have measured by immunohistochemistry oestrogen, progestin and gonadotropin- releasing hormone receptors (Gn-RHRs) in paraffinembedded ovarian cancer tissue in a sample of 62 consecutive patients with advanced ovarian cancer treated with surgery and adjuvant chemotherapy. Descriptive methods, a survival analysis (Kaplan-Meier) and a Cox regression analysis were done.

RESULTS

Oestrogen receptors (ERs) were positive in 65% of patients and the same positivity was obtained for progestin receptors (PRs), with 74% showing some positivity for Gn-RHR receptors. Maximal cytoreduction and ERs, but not gonadotropin receptors, were independently associated with overall survival, with better survival for oestrogennegative tumours. No association was established for progression- free survival.

CONCLUSIONS

We can conclude that ER status in our series is an independent prognostic factor for ovarian cancer with better survival for oestrogen-negative receptor tumours. PRs could also have a prognostic role in association with ERs.

A phase II study of fulvestrant in the treatment of multiply-recurrent epithelial ovarian cancer

Objective. The goal of treating recurrent ovarian cancer is disease control while minimizing toxicity. Fulvestrant, a novel estrogen receptor (ER) antagonist, has proven clinically beneficial and well-tolerated in treating recurrent breast cancer. Ovarian cancer often expresses ER and may respond to anti-estrogen therapy. We evaluated fulvestrant in women with recurrent ovarian or primary peritoneal cancer. Methods. Patients with ER-positive, multiply recurrent ovarian or primary peritoneal carcinoma and either measurable disease according to RECIST criteria or an abnormal and rising CA-125 were eligible for enrollment. Treatment consisted of single agent fulvestrant, 500 mg IM on Day 1, 250 mg IM on Day 15, and 250 mg IM on Day 29 and every 28 days thereafter until either intolerance or disease progression. Disease response was assessed by monthly physical exams and CA-125 levels as well as CT scans bimonthly. The primary endpoint was clinical benefit (CB=complete response (CR)+partial response (PR)+stable disease (SD)) at 90 days. Results. Thirty-one women were enrolled and 26 women (median age of 61) met inclusion criteria and received at least one dose. Patients had received a median of 5 prior chemotherapeutic regimens (range: 2-13). We observed one CR (4%), one PR (4%), and 9 patients with SD (35%) using modified-Rustin criteria (CA-125 level). Using modified-RECIST criteria 13 patients (50%) achieved SD. The median time to disease progression was 62 days (mean 86 days). Grade 1 toxicity included headache (1 patient) and bromidrosis (2 patients). Conclusions. Fulvestrant is well-tolerated and efficacious. Objective response rates are low, but disease stabilization was common.

Second-line randomized trials in epithelial ovarian cancer

Important issues in the treatment of patients with recurrent ovarian cancer (ROC) are 1) to delay the time to symptomatic disease, 2) to reduce symptoms in case of symptomatic disease, 3) to optimize quality of life, and 4) to prolong overall survival. However, response assessment and recording of treatment-induced side effects in general get most attention. The likelihood of response to chemotherapy is directly proportional to the length of time between the end of primary chemotherapy and the date of recurrence. Also, the aggressiveness of the recurrence seems related to the prior biological pace of disease progression. For these reasons different disease categories have been identified, ie, platinum/taxane-refractory disease (progressive during first-line stabilization as best response), persistent disease (partial response to first-line therapy), platinum/taxane-resistant disease (clinical complete response [CCR] or no evidence of disease [NED] to/after first line and relapse <6 months), and platinum/taxane-sensitive disease (CCR or NED to/after first line and relapse >6 months). Randomized trials in these different categories did not show a benefit of maintenance or consolidation therapies after first-line therapy but did show differences in tolerability and efficacy (in platinum/taxane-sensitive disease) of different single agents and indicated that in specific circumstances combination chemotherapy is superior to single-agent chemotherapy. However, in all circumstances other aspects such as toxicity (and earlier experienced toxicity), clinical condition, convenience of administration, costs, and patient preference should be considered in the final selection of treatment

Randomized phase III trial of gemcitabine compared with pegylated liposomal doxorubicin in patients with platinum-resistant ovarian cancer

PURPOSE

Ovarian cancer (OC) patients experiencing progressive disease (PD) within 6 months of platinum-based therapy in the primary setting are considered platinum resistant (Pt-R). Currently, pegylated liposomal doxorubicin (PLD) is a standard of care for treatment of recurrent Pt-R disease. On the basis of promising phase II results, gemcitabine was compared with PLD for efficacy and safety in taxane-pretreated Pt-R OC patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Patients (n = 195) with Pt-R OC were randomly assigned to either gemcitabine 1,000 mg/m2 (days 1 and 8; every 21 days) or PLD 50 mg/m2 (day 1; every 28 days) until PD or undue toxicity. Optional cross-over therapy was allowed at PD or at withdrawal because of toxicity. Primary end point was progression-free survival (PFS). Additional end points included tumor response, time to treatment failure, survival, and quality of life.

RESULTS

In the gemcitabine and PLD groups, median PFS was 3.6 v 3.1 months; median overall survival was 12.7 v 13.5 months; overall response rate (ORR) was 6.1% v 8.3%; and in the subset of patients with measurable disease, ORR was 9.2% v 11.7%, respectively. None of the efficacy end points showed a statistically significant difference between treatment groups. The PLD group experienced significantly more hand-foot syndrome and mucositis; the gemcitabine group experienced significantly more constipation, nausea/vomiting, fatigue, and neutropenia but not febrile neutropenia.

CONCLUSION

Although this was not designed as an equivalency study, gemcitabine and PLD seem to have a comparable therapeutic index in this population of Pt-R taxane-pretreated OC patients. Single-agent gemcitabine may be an acceptable alternative to PLD for patients with Pt-R OC.

Gonadotropins and ovarian cancer

Ovarian epithelial cancer (OEC) accounts for 90% of all ovarian cancers and is the leading cause of death from gynecological cancers in North America and Europe. Despite its clinical significance, the factors that regulate the development and progression of ovarian cancer are among the least understood of all major human malignancies. The two gonadotropins, FSH and LH, are key regulators of ovarian cell functions, and the potential role of gonadotropins in the pathogenesis of ovarian cancer is suggested. Ovarian carcinomas have been found to express specific receptors for gonadotropins. The presence of gonadotropins in ovarian tumor fluid suggests the importance of these factors in the transformation and progression of ovarian cancers as well as being prognostic indicators. Functionally, there is evidence showing a direct action of gonadotropins on ovarian tumor cell growth. This review summarizes the key findings and recent advances in our understanding of these peptide hormones in ovarian cancer development and progression and their role in potential future cancer therapy. We will first discuss the supporting evidence and controversies in the "gonadotropin theory" and the use of animal models for exploring the involvement of gonadotropins in the etiology of ovarian cancer. The role of gonadotropins in regulating the proliferation, survival, and metastasis of OEC is next summarized. Relevant data from ovarian surface epithelium, which is widely believed to be the precursor of OEC, are also described. Finally, we will discuss the clinical applications of gonadotropins in ovarian cancer and the recent progress in drug development.

Hormonal therapy in ovarian cancer

Ovarian carcinoma continues to be the leading cause of death due to gynecological malignancy. Epidemiologic studies indicate that steroid hormones play roles in ovarian carcinogenesis. Gonadotropins, estrogen, and androgen may be causative factors, while gonadotropin-releasing hormone and progesterone may be protective factors in ovarian cancer pathogenesis. Experimental studies have shown that hormonal receptors are expressed in ovarian cancer cells and mediate the growth-stimulatory or growth-inhibitory effects of the hormones on these cells. Hormonal therapeutic agents have been evaluated in several clinical trials. Most of these trials were conducted in patients with recurrent or refractory ovarian cancer, with modest efficacy and few side effects. Better understanding of the mechanisms through which hormones affect cell growth may improve the efficacy of hormonal therapy. Molecular markers that can reliably predict major clinical outcomes should be investigated further in well-designed trials.

Pericarditis after high-dose chemotherapy: more frequent than expected?

BACKGROUND

Pericarditis is a rare side-effect of chemotherapy and has been reported following administration of cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin and other drugs but not treosulfan.

CASE REPORTS

We report on 2 patients with retrosternal chest pain and typical widespread upward concave ST-segment elevation in the 12-lead electrocardiogram prompting the diagnosis of acute pericarditis. The patients had received treatment for multiple myeloma or relapsed mantle cell lymphoma with high-dose treosulfan alone or in combination with etoposide and carboplatin followed by autologous stem cell transplantation 5 days before onset of the symptoms. In both patients, no serological evidence of viral infection was found. Serum creatine kinase and serum cardiac troponin I remained unchanged. Within 24 h of onset of the symptoms, C-reactive protein increased from normal values (< 5 mg/l) to 95 mg/l and 115 mg/l, respectively. In one of the patients, a paroxysmal supraventricular arrhythmia occurred that persisted for 2 days. After treatment with diclofenac, both patients recovered completely within 1 week.

CONCLUSION

The differential diagnosis of chest pain in the setting of high-dose chemotherapy with e.g. treosulfan should include pericarditis. The pathogenesis remains unclear. Alongside infections, direct toxic or immunological drug-related mechanisms are suggested.

Staging of rectal cancer by endorectal ultrasonography

Endorectal ultrasonography is valuable method for accurate local staging of rectal cancer. Precise evaluation of tumor stage is essential for optimal therapy planning in patients with rectal cancer. Furthermore, it has great influence on the resectability and the risk of recurrence following resection. Endorectal ultrasonography has become the most common diagnostic tool for locally staging rectal cancer due to its advantages over magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computer tomography (CT). Among these diagnostic modalities ERUS has been known to be most accurate. Moreover, endorectal ultrasonography is inexpensive and quick diagnostic procedure associated with minimal discomfort to the patient. However, the use of CT, MRI, and more recently magnetic resonance imaging with endorectal coil often remains necessary. These modalities may be useful supplements in patients with suspected T4 lesion, when endorectal ultrasonography is technically unsuccessful and in cases of diagnostic dilemma. Major improvements in diagnostic and staging of rectal cancer have led to stage-oriented surgery, planning of therapy individually for each patient, reduce of local recurrences, and better overall survival. This article reviews the current use of endorectal ultrasonography in preoperative staging of rectal cancer as the most practical and accurate diagnostic modality for preoperative locoregional staging of rectal cancer at this time.

Gestational carrier pregnancy with oocytes obtained during surgery for stage IIIc ovarian cancer after controlled ovarian stimulation

OBJECTIVE

To report a case of gestational carrier pregnancy with oocytes from a stage IIIc ovarian cancer patient.

DESIGN

Case report.

SETTING

University hospital.

PATIENT

A 38-year-old woman with stage IIIc ovarian cancer.

INTERVENTION(S)

Controlled ovarian stimulation, cancer surgery, and IVF-ET to a gestational carrier.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Oocyte fertilization and pregnancy.

RESULT(S)

Singleton term delivery occurred after transfer of three frozen-thawed embryos.

CONCLUSION(S)

Cryopreservation of embryos derived from IVF of oocytes obtained from ovarian cancer patients should be an option for their future fertility.

Clinical applications of hormonal therapy in ovarian cancer

The ovary is an endocrine organ and an end organ. Hormones and their receptors have been associated with ovarian cancer and may be related to its causation. Some data suggest that hormonal therapies may have some effect on ovarian cancer in palliative settings. No hormonal therapy is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of any type of ovarian malignancy nor is it listed as an active agent by any of the authoritative compendia. Because of the endocrine associations with ovarian cancer, the minimal side effects, and demonstrated activity of hormonal therapies in other endocrine-associated malignancies, further study is needed.

Preoperative evaluation and postoperative follow-up for patients with rectal cancer

Rectal cancer has a wide variety of presentations. In most cases, it is the surgeon who is faced with the challenge of determining the extent of disease and advising the patient how to proceed with treatment. Utilizing diagnostic tests of the highest accuracy and relevance will help in the selection of the best initial therapy, which is critical for achieving the highest cure rate while also avoiding over-treatment and unnecessary morbidity. Following curative treatment, surveillance testing for detection of recurrence is traditionally done, but the efficacy of this practice has been questioned. Surveillance will detect a number of asymptomatic recurrences that are treatable by potentially curative salvage surgery, but to what extent early detection improves salvage therapy is not well established. In this brief review, the goals, methods, and expected benefits of rectal cancer staging and surveillance are assessed.

Is stabilization of disease a useful indicator for survival in second-line treatment of ovarian carcinoma pre-treated with Paclitaxel–Platinum?

OBJECTIVE

Recurrent ovarian carcinoma is considered an incurable disease and second-line chemotherapy is administered for extension of survival and palliation. The impact of continued antineoplastic treatment in patients with stable disease without a demonstrable response is uncertain. The aim of this analysis was to assess the value of a stabilization of the tumor size in second-line chemotherapy as an indicator of survival.

METHODS

Retrospective, single-institution study of 487 consecutive patients with primary epithelial ovarian carcinoma.

INCLUSION CRITERIA

(1) FIGO stage IC-IV epithelial ovarian carcinoma; (2) first-line chemotherapy with Paclitaxel and a Platinum-compound; (3) refractory, persistent, or recurrent disease diagnosed by imaging methods; and (4) intravenous second-line chemotherapy with single Topotecan or Paclitaxel-Carboplatin. Univariate and multivariate analyses of survival with the World Health Organization (WHO) tumor response parameter included as a time-dependent variable were performed.

RESULTS

The response rates were (N = 100): complete response (CR) 27%, partial response (PR) 14%, stable disease (SD) 41% and progressive disease (PD) 18%. In a multivariate Cox regression analysis of survival, SD was found to be an independent prognostic factor for survival and the death hazard ratio was 0.37 (SD versus PD; 95% CI: 0.16-0.86; P = 0.02). There was no statistically significant difference in survival between patients with PR and SD (P = 0.09).

CONCLUSION

In second-line chemotherapy of ovarian cancer, patients demonstrating SD have a survival benefit compared to patients with PD measured by the WHO tumor response criteria.

Part II: chemotherapy for epithelial ovarian cancer-treatment of recurrent disease

For women with advanced ovarian cancer, rates of response to first-line chemotherapy are high but most patients have relapses and become candidates for further chemotherapy. Chemotherapy for recurrence can palliate symptoms, and there is some evidence that it can also improve survival in this clinical situation. Patients who relapse quickly after first-line therapy should not be given the same drugs as were used initially. However, for patients who have longer intervals from treatment to relapse, the rates of response to a rechallenge with platinum are clinically significant. Several cytotoxic drugs have shown activity in patients whose disease has relapsed after therapy with platinum and a taxane; these drugs include topotecan, etoposide, pegylated liposomal doxorubicin, epirubicin, gemcitabine, altretamine, oxali platin, and vinorelbine. Recurrent ovarian cancer is also an important setting in which to test investigational agents with promising activity, such as new platinum compounds, new taxanes, and other cytotoxic agents, as well as non-cytotoxic compounds with novel mechanisms of action.