Anal cancer: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up

Oncologic Outcomes of Salvage Abdominoperineal Resection for Anal Squamous Cell Carcinoma Initially Managed with Chemoradiation

Background: Abdominoperineal resection (APR) has been advocated for persistent or recurrent disease after failure of chemoradiation (CRT) for anal squamous cell cancer (SCC). Treatment with salvage APR can potentially achieve a cure. This study aimed to analyze oncological outcomes for salvage APR in a recent time period at a comprehensive cancer center. Methods: A retrospective review of all patients who underwent APR for biopsy-proven persistent or recurrent anal SCC between 1 January 2007 and 31 December 2020 was performed. Patients with stage IV disease at the time of initial diagnosis and patients with missing data were excluded. Univariate analysis was used with a chi-square test for categorical variables, and non-parametric tests were used for continuous variables. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was performed to evaluate disease-specific (DSS), post-APR local recurrence-free (RFS), and disease-free survival (DFS). Results: A total of 96 patients were included in the analysis: 39 (41%) with persistent disease and 57 (59%) with recurrent SCC after chemoradiation had been completed. The median follow-up was 22 months (IQR 11-47). Forty-nine patients (51%) underwent extended APR and/or pelvic exenteration. Eight (8%) patients developed local recurrence, 30 (31%) developed local and distant recurrences, and 16 (17%) developed distant recurrences alone. The 3-year DSS, post-APR local recurrence-free survival, and disease-free survival were 53.8% (95% CI 43.5-66.5%), 54.5% (95% CI 44.4-66.8%), and 26.8% (95% CI 18.6-38.7%), respectively. In multivariate logistic regression analysis, positive microscopic margin (OR 10.0, 95% CI 2.16-46.12, p = 0.003), positive nodes in the surgical specimen (OR 9.19, 95% CI 1.99-42.52, p = 0.005), and lymphovascular invasion (OR 2.61 95% CI 1.05-6.51, p = 0.04) were associated with recurrence of disease. Gender, indication for APR (recurrent vs. persistent disease), HIV status, extent of surgery, or type of reconstruction did not influence survival outcomes. Twenty patients had targeted tumor-sequencing data available. Nine patients had PIK3CA mutations, seven of whom experienced a recurrence. Conclusions: Salvage APR for anal SCC after failed CRT was associated with poor disease-specific survival and low recurrence-free survival. Anal SCC patients undergoing salvage APR should be counseled that microscopic positive margins, positive lymph nodes, or the presence of lymphovascular invasion in the APR specimen are prognosticators for disease relapse. Our results accentuate the necessity for additional treatment strategies for the ongoing treatment challenge of persistent or recurrent anal SCC after failed CRT.

Patient-reported QoL in anal cancer survivors 3 and 6 years after treatment—results from the Swedish national ANCA study

Purpose

The impact of anal cancer treatment for the patients is best evaluated by the patients themselves. The purpose of this study was to investigate quality of life (QoL) in patients with anal cancer at 3 and 6 years after treatment.

Methods

A Swedish national cross-sectional prospective cohort study with patients diagnosed with anal cancer between 2011 and 2013. Patients were invited to respond to a QoL questionnaire at 3 and 6 years, with focus on bowel, urinary and sexual function, social and mental function, co-morbidity, lifestyle, daily activities, personal characteristics, and perceived QoL. It also contained questions on the severity of the symptoms regarding occurrence, frequency, and duration and the level of “bother” experienced related to functional symptoms.

QoL and prevalence of bother with urinary, sexual, bowel dysfunction, and anal pain were described. The prevalence of impaired QoL was compared with a healthy reference population. The association between QoL and experiencing bother was quantified by regression models.

Results

From an original cohort of 464 patients with anal cancer, 264 (57%) were alive and contacted at 3 years and 230 (50%) at 6 years. One hundred ninety-five (74%) patients responded to the 3-year and 152 (66%) to the 6-year questionnaire. Sixty percent reported low QoL at both 3 and 6 years. Impaired QoL was more prevalent among patients with major bother due to bowel dysfunction (at 3 years RR 1.42, 95% CI (1.06–1.9) p-value 0.020, at 6 years RR 1.52, 95% CI (1.03–2.24) p-value 0.034) and urinary dysfunction (at 6 years RR 1.44, 95% CI (1.08–1.91) p-value 0.013). There was a tendency to a positive relationship between the number of bodily functions causing bother and risk for impaired QoL.

Conclusion

Patients treated for anal cancer reported bother regarding several bodily functions as well as poor QoL both at 3 and 6 years without much improvement. Bother was also associated with low QoL indicating that function-related bother should be addressed.

Is elective inguinal or external iliac irradiation during neoadjuvant (chemo)radiotherapy necessary for locally advanced lower rectal cancer with anal sphincter invasion?

PURPOSE

To investigate the impact of excluding irradiation of inguinal lymph nodes (ILNs) and external iliac lymph nodes (ELNs) during neoadjuvant (chemo)radiotherapy in a locally advanced lower rectal cancer (LALRC) with anal sphincter invasion.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 214 LALRC patients with anal sphincter invasion according to pre-treatment magnetic resonance imaging who underwent neoadjuvant (chemo)radiotherapy followed by surgery between September 2010 and May 2019 were enrolled. ILNs and ELNs were clinically negative pre-treatment and were excluded from irradiation. Failure rates and patterns of ILNs and ELNs and survival were analyzed. Nomograms for predicting ILN and ELN failure risk were also constructed.

RESULTS

The median follow-up was 53.3 months. The three-year failure rates were 3.7% for ILNs and 3.3% for ELNs. Only one patient developed isolated ILN failure, and no patient experienced isolated ELN failure. Multivariate analyses demonstrated that lower edge of tumors invaded or located below the dentate line (odds ratio [OR] 7.513, P = 0.013), high histological grade (OR 6.892, P = 0.017), and perineural invasion (OR 7.111, P = 0.023) were significantly related to ILN failure. Both perineural invasion (OR 8.923, P = 0.011) and high histological grade (OR 8.129, P = 0.011) showed a strong correlation with ELN failure. The concordance index of nomograms for predicting ILN and ELN failure risk were 0.842 and 0.880, respectively. The three-year local recurrence free survival, disease-free survival, and overall survival were 94.6% (95% confidence interval [CI], 91.3%‒97.9%), 77.7% (95% CI, 71.8%‒83.6%), and 91.9% (95% CI, 87.8%‒96.0%), respectively, for the whole cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

Excluding ILNs and ELNs from irradiation was associated with an acceptably low failure risk for LALRC invading the anal sphincter. These findings help to refine existing guidelines for clinical target volume delineation of ILNs and ELNs during neoadjuvant (chemo)radiotherapy in rectal cancer.

Prognostic implications of advancing nodal stage in anal cancer: evaluating AJCC 8 staging changes through an NCDB analysis

PURPOSE

In the AJCC8, nodal staging for squamous cell carcinoma of the anus (SCCA) has been changed to a binary format (N0 or N+), and overall stage groups have been redefined. We evaluated the effect of AJCC8 nodal stage by T stage and hypothesized similar survival regardless of the extent of AJCC7-defined nodal involvement.

METHODS

The National Cancer Database (NCDB) was used to identify patients' SCCA. Overall survival (OS) for each T stage within the AJCC7 was compared with increasing nodal stage, as well as for the new AJCC8 overall stage groups and subsets.

RESULTS

There were 6738 patients analyzed. The 5-year OS by AJCC8 stage was I = 81%, IIA = 78%, IIB = 64%, IIIA = 69%, IIIB = 59%, IIIC = 57% (p < 0.0001). In AJCC8 IIIA (T1-2, N+), there was no difference in 5-year OS between T1N+ or T2N+ patients (70.3% vs 68.6%, p = 0.09). A significant survival difference was demonstrated between AJCC7 N1, N2, and N3 for patients with either T1 (p = 0.0047) or T2 (p = 0.0389) disease. In the AJCC 8 IIIC (T3-4, N+) group, there was no difference in 5-year OS between T3N+ and T4N+ (58% vs 55%, p = 0.81). There was no OS difference between AJCC7 N1-3 for either T3 (p = 0.19) or T4 (0.35) disease.

CONCLUSION

For earlier T stages, advancing nodal stage per AJCC7 retains prognostic implications for OS. Survival in AJCC8 stage IIIA is heterogeneous and is largely driven by burden of nodal disease in patients with T1-2 disease.

Lymph Node Noncompliance Affects the Long-Term Prognosis of Patients with Gastric Cancer after Laparoscopic Total Gastrectomy

BACKGROUND

Our study investigated the effect of lymph node (LN) noncompliance on the long-term prognosis of patients after laparoscopic total gastrectomy (LTG) and explored the risk factors of LN noncompliance.

METHODS

The clinicopathological data of gastric cancer (GC) patients who underwent LTG with D2 lymphadenectomy from June 2007 to December 2013 were prospectively collected and retrospectively analyzed. The effects of LN noncompliance on the long-term prognosis of patients with GC after LTG were explored.

RESULTS

The overall LN noncompliance rate was 51.9%. The survival rate of patients after LTG with LN compliance was significantly superior to that of patients with LN noncompliance (p = 0.013). The stratified analysis of TNM stage indicated that there was no difference between the OS of stage I patients with LN compliance and those with LN noncompliance; OS of stage II/III patients with LN compliance was significantly better than that of those with LN noncompliance. Cox regression analyses showed that LN noncompliance was an independent risk factor for OS. Logistic regression analysis showed that high BMI (≥ 25 kg/m²) was an independent risk factor for preoperative prediction of LN noncompliance in cStage II/III patients. Patients with a high BMI were more likely to have LN noncompliance during surgery, especially during the dissections of #6, #8a, and #12a LN stations.

CONCLUSIONS

LN noncompliance was an independent risk factor for poor prognosis in patients with advanced gastric cancer (AGC) after LTG. Patients with high BMI were more likely to have LN noncompliance, especially during the dissections of #6, #8a, and #12a LN stations. LN tracing was recommended for these patients to reduce the rate of LN noncompliance.

Long-term results achieved by guideline-based stage-dependent management of anal cancer in a non-HIV population

PURPOSE

Therapy of anal cancer follows national and international guidelines that are mainly derived from randomized trials. This study aimed to analyze long-term results of stage-dependent treatment of anal cancer in a non-selected patient cohort.

PATIENTS AND METHOD

All consecutive patients treated for anal cancer between 2000 and 2015 were retrieved from a prospective database. Risk-dependent screening for human immunodeficiency virus showed no infection. Main outcome measure was overall survival with respect to tumor site and treatment. Secondary endpoints were cause-specific survival, stoma free survival, and the rate of salvage operations.

RESULTS

In total, 106 patients were treated for anal cancer. Of those, 69 (65.1%) suffered from anal canal cancer and 37 (34.9%) from anal margin cancer. Three patients with synchronous distant metastases were excluded from analysis. The majority of patients (n = 79, 76.7%) were treated by chemoradiotherapy in curative intention. Twenty-two patients underwent local surgery. Five-year overall survival was 73.1% and cause-specific survival at 5 years was 87.4%. Overall, 14 patients (13.6%) needed salvage surgery. Their 5-year cause-specific survival was 57.7%. A permanent ostomy was avoided in 77.7%.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment of anal cancer results in low rates of salvage surgery and permanent ostomies, when therapy was determined by a multidisciplinary team following national and international guidelines.

Squamous cell carcinoma of the anal canal

Anal squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is a rare cancer and accounts for approximately 4% of all cancers of the lower alimentary tract. The dominant etiology is infection with human papilloma virus (HPV), which is the most common sexually transmitted disease in the United States. Integration of HPV DNA into the host genome seems to be the driving mechanism behind carcinogenesis. Vaccines directed against oncogenic HPV serotypes exist, and their utility for preventing anal neoplasia is under investigation. Additional risk factors for developing SCC include HIV infection, anal receptive intercourse, smoking, and immunosuppression. Patients with known anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN) must be carefully screened with periodic digital rectal exam and anoscopy. The most common presenting symptom is bleeding, with up to one third of patients presenting asymptomatic. Once tissue diagnosis is made, staging of primary tumor is accomplished with either MRI or transanal ultrasound. Distant disease is evaluated with CT of chest abdomen and pelvis vs whole body PET/CT. The gold standard treatment for stage I-III disease remains the Nigro protocol, first described in 1974. Stage I disease not involving sphincter may be treated with local excision. Distant disease is treated with systemic chemotherapy with radiation reserved for locoregional symptoms. Careful surveillance is mandatory after completion of chemoradiation. Salvage abdominoperineal resection can achieve locoregional control in up to 77% of patients with persistent or recurrent disease. Morbidity is high, mostly owing to wound complications, and as such a flap reconstruction of the perineum is warranted.

Recent advances in the management of anal cancer

Anal cancer is a rare condition, although its incidence has been increasing over the past several decades, particularly in women. The majority of anal cancers are squamous cell cancers and are linked with human papilloma virus (HPV) infection. Recent work in HPV basic science has delineated the mechanism by which the virus leads to the development of anal cancer. With widespread availability of an HPV vaccine since 2006, vaccination has become an important strategy for anal cancer prevention. However, in the US, there remain no guidelines for anal cancer screening. Treatment of anal cancer is dictated largely by accurate staging, which is generally accomplished with a combination of physical exam, magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, and positron emission tomography. Chemoradiation remains the mainstay of treatment for most patients, with surgery reserved for salvage therapy. Recent trials have identified the optimal use of available chemotherapeutics. Exciting developments in immune therapies targeting HPV oncoproteins as well as therapeutic vaccines may soon dramatically change the way patients with anal cancer are managed.

Management of locally advanced anal canal carcinoma with intensity-modulated radiotherapy and concurrent chemotherapy

The best curative option for locally advanced (stages II-III) squamous-cell carcinomas of the anal canal (SCCAC) is concurrent chemo-radiotherapy delivering 36-45 Gy to the prophylactic planning target volume with an additional boost of 14-20 Gy to the gross tumor volume with or without a gap-period between these two sequences. Although 3-dimensional conformal radiotherapy led to suboptimal tumor coverage because of field junctions, this modality remains a standard of care. Recently, intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) techniques improved tumor coverage while decreasing doses delivered to organs at risk. Sparing healthy tissues results in fewer severe acute toxicities. Consequently, IMRT could potentially avoid a gap-period that may increase the risk of local failure. Furthermore, these modalities reduce severe late toxicities of the gastrointestinal tract as well as better functional conservation of anorectal sphincter. This report aims to critically review contemporary trends in the management of locally advanced SCCAC using IMRT and concurrent chemotherapy.

A Definitive IMRT-SIB with Concomitant Chemotherapy for Synchronous Locally Advanced Anal Canal Cancer and Prostate Cancer

Currently, there are no specific recommendations regarding the management of the synchronous tumours due to the lack of either specific guidelines or individuals' clinical experiences relative to these clinical situations. In the presence of a locally advanced double primary tumour and with the lymph node metastases in addition, from the radiotherapeutical point of view, it must be challenging to manage this complicated situation that requires a more delicate treatment planning, due to higher doses prescribed to greater volumes concomitantly with the chemotherapy. A 68-year-old Caucasian male with a synchronous intermediate-risk prostate adenocarcinoma and locally advanced anal canal carcinoma underwent IMRT-SIB with concomitant chemotherapy at our institute. Two years after the treatment, the restaging CT and MRI scan showed no evidence of the disease and the patient reported no significant gastrointestinal or genitourinary toxicity. Our experience is unique, since it is the first report on using the IMRT-SIB technique simultaneously with chemotherapy in the management of the synchronous prostate and anal canal carcinomas. Therefore, we find it important to provide the current literature with the results from our experience which show good feasibility, efficacy, and tolerability of the definitive concomitant IMRT-SIB-chemotherapy for the synchronous anal canal cancer and prostate cancer.

MRI of anal canal: normal anatomy, imaging protocol, and perianal fistulas: Part 1

Anal complaints are very common in the general population and are caused by a variety of disorders mostly benign in nature. The aim of this article is to provide the radiologist with a detailed description of the MRI anatomy and technique, and an overview of the various diseases most commonly presenting with anal pain, by descriptions and illustrative examples of MRI features of each entity.

MRI of anal canal: common anal and perianal disorders beyond fistulas: Part 2

A broad spectrum of disease, from benign processes to life-threatening pathologies, can cause anal pain. MR imaging (MRI) has become increasingly widely used method over the past two decades for the evaluation of individuals with anorectal symptoms. Although imaging is rarely necessary to determine the etiology of the majority of cases, MRI is particularly useful as a noninvasive method of excluding severe neoplastic conditions. In this article, MRI findings of a number of pathologies such as anal and perianal neoplasms, hemorrhoidal disease, arteriovenous malformation of the perianal region, and anal sphincter lesions (defects, scarring, atrophy) which may lead to fecal incontinence are presented.

HIV Status and Associated Clinical Characteristics Among Adult Patients With Cancer at the Uganda Cancer Institute

Purpose

HIV increases cancer incidence and mortality. In Uganda, the HIV epidemic has led to an elevated incidence of AIDS-defining cancers (ADCs) and non–AIDS-defining cancers (NADCs). Limited information exists about how frequently HIV infection complicates the presentation and manifestations of cancer in sub-Saharan Africa.

Methods

We abstracted medical records from patients with cancer who were age 18 years or older who registered at the Uganda Cancer Institute from June through September 2015 to determine the burden of HIV. We used χ² tests and generalized linear models to evaluate factors associated with HIV positivity. A sensitivity analysis estimated HIV prevalence in those untested.

Results

Among 1,137 patients with cancer, 23% were HIV infected, 48% were HIV negative, and 29% had no recorded HIV status. Of those with recorded HIV status, 32% were HIV positive. Forty-two percent (149 of 361 patients) with ADCs were documented as HIV infected (51% of those with documented status) compared with 14% (108 of 776 patients) of those with NADCs (21% of those with documented status). In multivariable analysis, HIV infection was associated with ADC diagnosis (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] compared with NADC, 2.2; 95% CI, 1.5 to 3.0), younger age (aPR, 0.9 per decade increase; 95% CI, 0.8 to 1.0), and worse performance status scores (aPR, 1.2 per point ECOG increase; 95% CI, 1.0 to 1.5). When sensitivity analysis accounted for undocumented HIV status, the expected prevalence of HIV infection was 29% (range, 23% to 32%), and almost one fourth of expected HIV cases were undiagnosed or unrecorded.

Conclusion

The prevalence of HIV infection among Ugandan patients with cancer is substantially higher than in the general population. Patients with cancer and HIV tend to be younger and have poorer performance status. Greater awareness of the dual burden of cancer and HIV in Uganda and universal testing of patients with cancer may improve outcomes of HIV-associated malignancies.

Anal cancer: French Intergroup Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up (SNFGE, FFCD, GERCOR, UNICANCER, SFCD, SFED, SFRO, SNFCP)

INTRODUCTION

This document is a summary of the French Intergroup guidelines regarding the management of anal carcinomas, published in November 2016.

METHODS

It is a collaborative work produced under the auspices of the majority of the French medical societies involved in the management of anal cancer. It is based on the previous guidelines published in 2010. Recommendations are graded in three categories, according to the amount of evidence found in the literature.

RESULTS

Non-metastatic anal carcinomas can be divided into two risk groups, according to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or endorectal-ultrasonograpy. Localized small cancers (T1N0) are mainly treated by exclusive radiation therapy in the case of cancers of the anal canal, or by surgery in the case of cancers of the anal margin. The recommended treatment of locally advanced tumours (T2-T4, N0-N2) is definitive concomitant radio-chemotherapy. Salvage surgery should be reserved for patients with poor response, tumour progression or local relapse after radio-chemotherapy, or in cases of persistent vaginal fistula or total anal incontinence after the cessation of radio-chemotherapy. In the case of metastatic tumours, current therapeutic recommendations are based on less robust evidence; with chemotherapy playing a major role.

CONCLUSION

These recommendations are permanently being reviewed, and each individual case must be discussed inside a multidisciplinary team.

Use of MRI to identify enlarged inferior gluteal and ischioanal lymph nodes and associated findings related to the primary disease

PURPOSE

We aimed to draw attention to the lymph nodes at the inferior gluteal and ischioanal regions and evaluate the lesions accompanying them using 3.0 T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

METHODS

In total, 22 patients (15 men, 7 women; mean age, 50±11.2 years; age range, 32-71 years) were included in this study. The patients' medical records were reviewed. MRI data were reviewed on a picture archiving and communication system workstation by two radiologists in consensus. Lymph node location, laterality, number, and size were documented.

RESULTS

The primary disorders causing the enlargement of inferior gluteal lymph nodes (n=16) were perianal fistula of cryptoglandular origin (n=5), perianal fistula associated with Crohn's disease (n=2), decubitus ulcers (n=2), presacral abscess (n=1), non-Hodgkin lymphoma (n=2), prostate cancer invading urethra and anorectal junction (n=1), endometrium cancer invading the urethra and vagina (n=1), and anal cancer (n=2). The pathologies causing the enlargement of ischioanal lymph nodes (n=6) were perianal fistula of cryptoglandular origin (n=4), subcutaneous inflammation of gluteal region related to Crohn's disease (n=1), and prostate cancer (n=1).

CONCLUSION

The infectious and neoplastic lesions involving the anal canal, distal rectum, gluteal region, prostate, and urethra are the possible causes of inferior gluteal and ischioanal lymph node enlargement. Lymphoproliferative diseases can also affect these node groups. MRI is an important method to identify enlarged inferior gluteal and ischioanal lymph nodes and define associated findings.

Initial Results from the Royal College of Radiologists' UK National Audit of Anal Cancer Radiotherapy 2015

AIMS

UK guidance was recently developed for the treatment of anal cancer using intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT). We audited the current use of radiotherapy in UK cancer centres for the treatment of anal cancer against such guidance. We describe the acute toxicity of IMRT in comparison with patient population in the audit treated with two-phase conformal radiotherapy and the previous published data from two-phase conformal radiotherapy, in the UK ACT2 trial.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A Royal College of Radiologists' prospective national audit of patients treated with radiotherapy in UK cancer centres was carried out over a 6 month period between February and July 2015.

RESULTS

Two hundred and forty-two cases were received from 40/56 cancer centres (71%). In total, 231 (95%) underwent full dose radiotherapy with prophylactic nodal irradiation. Of these, 180 (78%) received IMRT or equivalent, 52 (22%) two-phase conformal (ACT2) technique. The number of interruptions in radiotherapy treatment in the ACT2 trial was 15%. Interruptions were noted in 7% (95% confidence interval 0-14%) of courses receiving two-phase conformal and 4% (95% confidence interval 1-7%) of those receiving IMRT. The percentage of patients completing the planned radiotherapy dose, irrelevant of gaps, was 90% (95% confidence interval 82-98%) and 96% (95% confidence interval 93-99%), in two-phase conformal and IMRT respectively. The toxicity reported in the ACT2 trial, in patients receiving two-phase conformal in the audit and in patients receiving IMRT in the audit was: any toxic effect 71%, 54%, 48%, non-haematological 62%, 49%, 40% and haematological 26%, 13%, 18%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

IMRT implementation for anal cancer is well underway in the UK with most patients receiving IMRT delivery, although its usage is not yet universal. This audit confirms that IMRT results in reduced acute toxicity and minimised treatment interruptions in comparison with previous two-phase conformal techniques.

The assessment of local response using magnetic resonance imaging at 3- and 6-month post chemoradiotherapy in patients with anal cancer

OBJECTIVES

To assess the use of MRI-determined tumour regression grading (TRG) in local response assessment and detection of salvageable early local relapse after chemoradiotherapy (CRT) in patients with anal squamous cell carcinoma (ASCC).

METHODS

From a prospective database of patients with ASCC managed through a centralised multidisciplinary team, 74 patients who completed routine post-CRT 3- and 6-month MRIs (2009-2012) were reviewed. Two radiologists blinded to the outcomes consensus read and retrospectively assigned TRG scores [1 (complete response) to 5 (no response)] and related these to early local relapse (within 12 months) and disease-free survival (DFS).

RESULTS

Seven patients had early local relapse. TRG 1/2 scores at 3 and 6 months had a 100 % negative predictive value; TRG 4/5 scores at 6 months had a 100 % positive predictive value. All seven patients underwent salvage R0 resections. We identified a novel 'tram-track' sign on MRI in over half of patients, with an NPV for early local relapse of 83 % at 6 months. No imaging characteristic or TRG score independently prognosticated for late relapse or 3-year DFS.

CONCLUSIONS

Post-CRT 3- and 6-month MRI-determined TRG scores predicted salvageable R0 early local relapses in patients with ASCC, challenging current clinical guidelines.

KEY POINTS

• Post-chemoradiotherapy MRI (3 and 6 months) helps local response assessment in ASCC. • The MRI-TRG system can be used reproducibly in patients with ASCC. • The TRG system facilitates patient selection for examination under anaesthesia and biopsy. • The use of MRI-TRG predicts for detection of salvageable early local relapses. • The TRG system allows for a standardised follow-up pathway.

Multimodal therapy is feasible in elderly anal cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Many patients are diagnosed with an anal cancer in high ages. We here present the outcome after oncological therapy for patients above 80 years compared with younger patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A series of 213 consecutive patients was diagnosed and treated at a single institution from 1984 to 2009. The patients received similar radiation doses but with different techniques, thus progressively sparing more normal tissues. The majority of patients also had simultaneous [5-fluorouracil (5FU) and mitomycin C] or induction chemotherapy (cisplatin and 5FU). The patients were stratified by age above or below 80 years. Despite that the goal was to offer standard chemoradiation treatment to all, the octo- and nonagenarians could not always be given chemotherapy.

RESULTS

In our series 35 of 213 anal cancer patients were above 80 years. After initial therapy similar complete response was observed, 80% above and 87% below 80 years. Local recurrence rate was also similar in both groups, 21% versus 26% (p = .187). Cancer-specific survival and relative survival were significantly lower in patients above 80 years, 60% and 50% versus 83% and 80%, (p = .015 and p = .027), respectively.

CONCLUSION

Patients older than 80 years develop anal cancer, but more often marginal tumors. Even in the oldest age group half of the patients can tolerate standard treatment by a combination of radiation and chemotherapy, and obtain a relative survival of 50% after five years. Fragile patients not considered candidates for chemoradiation may be offered radiation or resection to control local disease.

Quantifying target-specific motion in anal cancer patients treated with intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT)

Background and purpose

Intensity modulated radiotherapy requires all target areas to be treated by a single radiotherapy plan. In anal cancer, the pelvic nodes, inguinal nodes and primary tumour represent three different targets. We aim to calculate target-specific motion in anal cancer radiotherapy, when delivered using a single pelvic online auto-match.

Materials and methods

Twenty consecutive patients treated using IMRT at a single institution were studied. CBCTs were retrospectively re-matched around the inguinal nodes and primary tumour. Match values were recorded relative to origin, defined as pelvic CBCT auto-match. Systematic and random errors were quantified to determine target-specific motion and suggested margins calculated using van Herk formulae.

Results

The suggested margins to cover the independent motion of the inguinal and anal targets for LR, CC and AP set up around the inguinal nodes were 1.5 mm, 2.7 mm and 2.8 mm; and the primary tumour were, 4.6 mm, 8.9 mm and 5.2 mm respectively.

Conclusions

Target-specific set up will likely result in reduced treatment volumes and as such reduced toxicity. This is the first time a relationship has been described between pelvic bones, inguinal nodes and primary tumour. The PLATO study will prospectively assess the toxicity and outcomes of this target-specific margins strategy.

Interstitial brachytherapy as a boost to patients with anal carcinoma and poor response to chemoradiation: Single-institution long-term results

PURPOSE

To analyze the efficacy of a protocol-based brachytherapy (BT) boost after external beam radiation therapy (EBRT) with simultaneous chemotherapy in patients with anal carcinoma.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

About 190 patients have been analyzed. Around 143 patients were identified with a good clinical response at the end of EBRT. Another 47 patients received an additional BT boost to the residual tumor at 6 weeks after end of chemoradiation.

RESULTS

The 5-year incidence of local recurrence was 24% in patients with BT boost and 19% in patients without BT boost (p = 0.238). The 5-year disease-free survival rate, overall survival rate, and colostomy-free survival rate were 64% and 75% and 76.1% in the BT group and 69% (p = 0.212), 72% (p = 0.924), and 82.7% (p = 0.488) in the non-BT group. We found no differences in late toxicity between the groups.

CONCLUSIONS

For patients with anal cancer with not a good response to 50-59 Gy EBRT with simultaneous chemotherapy, the further dose escalation using the BT boost up to a mean of 67.5 Gy seems to improve the clinical outcome to the same level as observed in patients with a good response to ERBT, without an increase in late side effects.

Surgical excision alone for stage T1 anal verge cancers in people living with HIV

INTRODUCTION

Anal cancer accounts for a small percentage of colorectal malignancies. Early stage (T1N0M0) cancers of the anal verge have been treated with local surgical excision alone in individuals without human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. The risk of anal cancer is higher in people living with HIV (PLWH). We present results of the outcomes of T1 anal verge cancers treated by local excision only in a series of PLWH.

METHODS

Demographic and clinicopathological data was prospectively collected from all HIV positive individuals with anal cancer, treated between 1986 and 2015. The date from anal cancer diagnosis until the date of the last follow up were collected.

RESULTS

Fifteen patients had T1N0M0 cancer of the anal verge from a total of 92 patients with HIV-associated anal cancer. The mean age was 49 years (range 36-57). The average age of HIV diagnosis was 35 years (range 19-48) and four patients had a diagnosis of AIDS prior to the diagnosis of anal cancer. All patients were surgically managed with complete local excision of the tumour. There were no complications or need for any adjuvant therapy. No patients have relapsed and at a median follow up of 4 years (range 3-15), the overall survival was 100%.

CONCLUSION

Surgical resection for early stage anal verge cancers is an effective strategy in PLWH. Increasing awareness of anal cancer and anoscopy surveillance in PLWH will hopefully continue to identify anal cancers at an early stage that are amenable to minimally invasive surgical management.

Anal cancer and intraepithelial neoplasia screening: A review

This review focuses on the early diagnosis of anal cancer and its precursor lesions through routine screening. A number of risk-stratification strategies as well as screening techniques have been suggested, and currently little consensus exists among national societies. Much of the current clinical rationale for the prevention of anal cancer derives from the similar tumor biology of cervical cancer and the successful use of routine screening to identify cervical cancer and its precursors early in the disease process. It is thought that such a strategy of identifying early anal intraepithelial neoplasia will reduce the incidence of invasive anal cancer. The low prevalence of anal cancer in the general population prevents the use of routine screening. However, routine screening of selected populations has been shown to be a more promising strategy. Potential screening modalities include digital anorectal exam, anal Papanicolaou testing, human papilloma virus co-testing, and high-resolution anoscopy. Additional research associating high-grade dysplasia treatment with anal cancer prevention as well as direct comparisons of screening regimens is necessary to develop further anal cancer screening recommendations.

Non-AIDS-related malignancies: expert consensus review and practical applications from the multidisciplinary CANCERVIH Working Group

Malignancies represent a major cause of morbidity and mortality in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients. The introduction of combined antiretroviral therapy has modified the spectrum of malignancies in HIV infection with a decreased incidence of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) malignancies such as Kaposi's sarcoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma due to partial immune recovery and an increase in non-AIDS-defining malignancies due to prolonged survival. Management of HIV-infected patients with cancer requires a multidisciplinary approach, involving both oncologists and HIV physicians to optimally manage both diseases and drug interactions between anticancer and anti-HIV drugs. The French CANCERVIH group presents here a review and an experience of managing non-AIDS malignancies in HIV-infected individuals.

Trends in incidence and survival for anal cancer in New South Wales, Australia, 1972-2009

INTRODUCTION

Little is known about the incidence and survival of anal cancer in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, as anal cancer cases are often grouped together with other colorectal cancers in descriptive epidemiological analyses.

METHODS

We studied patterns and trends in the incidence and survival of people diagnosed with anal cancer in NSW, Australia, 1972-2009 (n=2724). We also predicted anal cancer incidence in NSW during 2010-2032. Given the human papilloma virus-associated aetiology for most anal cancers, we quantified these changes over time in incidence and survival by histological subtype: anal squamous cell carcinoma (ASCC); and anal adenocarcinoma (AAC).

RESULTS

There was a linear increase in incident anal cancer cases in NSW with an average annual percentage change (AAPC) of 1.6 (95% CI 1.1-2.0) such that, in combination with age-period-cohort modelling, we predict there will be 198 cases of anal cancer in the 2032 calendar year (95% CI 169-236). Almost all of these anal cancer cases are projected to be ASCC (94%). Survival improved over time regardless of histological subtype. However, five-year relative survival was substantially higher for people with ASCC (70% (95% CI 66-74%)) compared to AAC (51% (95% CI 43-59%)), a 37% difference. Survival was also greater for women (69% (95% CI 64-73%)) with ASCC compared to men (55% (95% CI 50-60%)). It was not possible to estimate survival by stage at diagnosis particularly given that 8% of all cases were recorded as having distant stage and 22% had missing stage data.

INTERPRETATION

Aetiological explanations, namely exposure to oncogenic types of human papillomavirus, along with demographic changes most likely explain the actual and projected increase in ASCC case numbers. Survival differences by gender and histological subtype point to areas where further research is warranted to improve treatment and outcomes for all anal cancer patients.

Modeling early haematologic adverse events in conformal and intensity-modulated pelvic radiotherapy in anal cancer

Background and purpose

To determine if there are differences between dose to pelvic bone marrow (PBM) using intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) under UK guidance versus conformal radiotherapy (CRT) per ACT II protocol and if differences translate to rates of early haematological adverse events grade 3 or greater (HT3+).

Methods and materials

Two groups of 20+ patients, treated under IMRT and CRT regimes respectively, were identified. All patients underwent weekly blood cell count: haemoglobin (HgB), white cell count (WCC), absolute neutrophil count (ANC) and platelets (plats).

Percent volume of PBM and sub structures receiving 5–25 Gy were tested for statistical significance. Regression models were used to test for correlation to blood counts. NTCP modeling was also performed.

Results

PMB dose metrics showed a significant increase in the IMRT group. Regression analysis showed iliac and lumbosacral PBM dose metrics to associate with reduced nadir ANC and WCC. NTCP at HT3+ was 0.13 using IMRT relative to 0.07 using CRT (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

Whilst this is a relatively small retrospective study and lacks information on the distribution of active PBM, IMRT treatment has been shown to significantly increase PMB irradiation. PBM dose metrics have been shown to be predictive of WCC and ANC suppression. NTCP modeling predicts much high risk of HT3+. Paradoxically, actual rates of HT3+ were comparable suggesting that differences in the distributions of dose metrics maybe a significant factor and/or that there are insufficiency in the NTCP modeling.

Update and current status of diffusion-weighted MRI in anorectal malignancy

SUMMARY 

Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) is an MRI technique that yields unique information regarding the movement of water molecules at the cellular level. Now widely available and rapid to perform the sequence is increasingly utilized within abdominopelvic oncology, including anorectal cancer imaging. Unfortunately, the diffusion properties of anorectal tumors are complex and not fully understood, with areas of cellular tumor, necrosis and fibrosis co-existing. While DWI shows promise both for staging and in assessing treatment response in anorectal cancer, there remains a lack of consensus regarding its role and integration into standard MRI protocols. This article outlines the basic science behind DWI and reviews the current evidence base for its use in anorectal cancer.

Multiparametric MRI as an outcome predictor for anal canal cancer managed with chemoradiotherapy

Background

Organ-preserving chemo-radiotherapy (CRT) is the standard of care for non-metastatic anal squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). The optimal dosing schedules are yet to be determined. To improve local control rates, dose escalation has been investigated but found to not increase efficacy at the expense of increased toxicity for an unselected patient population.

Diffusion weighted imaging (DWI) and dynamic contrast enhanced (DCE) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) performed during CRT have early data suggesting it to be an effective tool in predicting later tumour response for SCC in related body sites.

By performing multi-parametric MRI (mpmMRI) incorporating standard morphological, DWI and DCE sequences, we aim to determine whether the early changes in multi-parametric parameters during CRT can predict for later response in anal SCC. This may create opportunities to investigate treatment adaptation, either intensification or de-escalation, during CRT.

Methods/Design

This protocol describes a prospective non-interventional multi-centre single-arm clinical trial. Twenty eligible patients with histologically confirmed non-metastatic anal SCC will receive standard definitive CRT and undergo multi-parametric MRI’s at the following 4 time points; prior to treatment, during the second and fourth weeks of treatment and 6-8 weeks following treatment.

Complete response will be defined by the absence of tumour persistence or recurrence as determined by clinical examination at 6 months.

Images will be retrospectively analysed to determine the apparent diffusion coefficient and tumour perfusion coefficients (K_trans and K_ep) at each time point. The Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon Test will be utilised to compare the change in these parameters for responder’s verses non-responders.

Discussion

If validated, mpmMRI, along with other risk factors, can be used to stratify patients and guide radiation dosing in a prospective trial. Informed individualisation of treatment intensity should help us achieve our goals of improved efficacy and reduced toxicity.

Trial registration

Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR): ACTRN12614001219673 (19/11/2014).

Cancers of the anal canal: diagnosis, treatment and future strategies

Anal cancer is an uncommon cancer; however, it is rising in incidence. There is confusion regarding nomenclature and the distinction between anal canal cancer and anal margin cancer. This article discusses the modern definition, etiology and staging of anal canal and anal margin cancers. Modern chemotherapy and radiotherapy regimens are discussed, in addition to modern imaging and radiotherapy techniques. Future preventative strategies and potential novel treatments are discussed.

Review of anal cancer patients at the Ottawa hospital

BACKGROUND

Anal cancer is uncommon. We reviewed the treatment and outcomes of anal cancer patients in a population referred to the Ottawa Hospital Cancer Centre (TOHCC) over a 12-year period.

METHODS

A chart review was conducted with patient data collected from hospital records, including: demographic, treatment and outcome information. Outcomes of interest included: overall survival (OS), disease free survival (DFS), and colostomy free survival (CFS).

RESULTS

180 patients were included in the study population. 72% (n = 130) female and 28% (n = 50) male. 6.7% (n = 12 males) of patients were HIV positive - all were on anti-retroviral therapy. 60% (n = 108) of patients were ever-smokers, mean patient age was 62 [range 35-90] years. The most frequent presenting symptoms were blood per rectum and anal pain. Treatment intent was curative in 87%. Treatment included radiotherapy (94%), brachytherapy (26%), chemotherapy (73%). Among patients treated with curative-intent, 72% had a complete response, 31% had local/regional recurrence, 16% required salvage surgery and 21% had distant recurrence. The colostomy rate was 23%. 5 year overall survival (OS) was not significantly different for patients by HIV status. Survival was superior if MMC-FU was used first vs. CIS-FU; OS HR 0.47 (0.24-0.94), p < 0.033.

CONCLUSIONS

The outcomes of patients in this large retrospective cohort study are similar to the outcomes of patients in highly selective clinical trials. Five year overall survival and colostomy free survival are encouraging. MMC-FU was found to be superior to CIS-FU.

FDG PET/CT in the management of colorectal and anal cancers

OBJECTIVE

CT remains the imaging modality of choice in the diagnosis of colorectal cancer (CRC) and anal cancer. However, advances in imaging have expanded the role of MRI and PET/CT. This article focuses on the evolving role of FDG PET/CT in the diagnosis, radiation therapy planning, therapy assessment, and posttherapy monitoring of CRC and anal cancer.

CONCLUSION

FDG PET/CT is a valuable imaging modality that impacts the clinical management of patients with CRC and those with anal cancer.

The cost of anal cancer in England: retrospective hospital data analysis and Markov model

BACKGROUND

Anal cancer requires a multidisciplinary approach to treatment with often complex interventions. Little is known regarding the associated costs and resource use.

METHODS

Patient records were extracted from a national hospital database to estimate the number of patients treated for anal cancer in England. Identified resource use was linked to published UK cost estimates to quantify the reimbursement of treatment through the Payment by Results system. A mathematical model was developed simultaneously to validate findings and to calculate the average 10-year cost of treating a squamous cell anal carcinoma case from diagnosis. The model utilised data from the Association of Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland's anal cancer position statement.

RESULTS

On average, 1,564 patients were admitted to hospital and 389 attended an outpatient facility per year. The average annual cost per inpatient and outpatient ranged from £4,562-£5,230 and £1,146-£1,335, respectively. Based on the model estimates, the inflated cost per case was between £16,470-£16,652. Results were most sensitive to the mode of admission for primary treatment and the costs of staging/diagnosis (inflated range: £14,309-£23,264).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite limitations in the available data, these results indicate that the cost of treating anal cancer is significant. Further observational work is required in order to verify these findings.

The role of MRI in the assessment of the local status of anal carcinomas and in their management

This study aims to define the role of Magnetic Resonance (MR) examinations in the assessment and therapy of anal cancer (AC), and to present the main features of the MR examinations and the typical tumor spread pattern. The MR examinations of 67 anal cancer patients with histologically confirmed planocellular cancer were analyzed retrospectively. The tumor size and the signal intensity, the nodal status were examined before and after the treatment, and in recidive tumors (N = 13). At the time of the diagnosis the primary tumor was in early stage (Tis, T1, T2) in 71.5 % of the cases, and it was localized in 97 %. In 97.4 % of the cases the tumor had relatively increased signal intensities compared to the adjacent muscles. Patients received chemo-radiotherapy (CRT). After CRT in 26 out of 39 patients (66.7 %) the size of the tumor decreased (in 75 %), and the signal intensity decreased on the T2 weighted (T2w) images. In the residual tumor cases (19/39) verified 6 patients out of 19 had further decrease in size, and signal intensity a year after the end of the therapy. The MR examination plays a key role in the therapy of AC, by assessing the precise local status, the possible recidive tumors, and monitoring the therapy.

Human papilloma virus and squamous cell carcinoma of the anus

The incidence of anal cancer is increasing. In the UK, the incidence is estimated at approximately 1.5 per 100,000. Most of this increase is attributed to certain at-risk populations. Persons who are human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive and men who have sex with men (MSM), Organ transplant recipients, women with a history of cervical cancer, human papilloma virus (HPV), or cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) are known to have a greater risk for anal cancer. This paper will focus on HPV as a risk factor for anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN) and discusses the etiology, anatomy, pathogenesis, management of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the anus.

Regional and national guideline recommendations for digital ano-rectal examination as a means for anal cancer screening in HIV positive men who have sex with men: a systematic review

Background

Although anal cancer is common in HIV positive men who have sex with men, few centres offer systematic screening. Regular digital ano-rectal examination (DARE) is a type of screening that has been recommended by some experts. How widely this forms part of HIV management guidelines is unclear.

Methods

The protocol was registered prospectively (CRD42013005188; http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/). We systematically reviewed 121 regional and national HIV guidelines and searched for guidelines from http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/global?page=cr-00-04#SauguidelineX, PubMed and Web of Science databases up to 5^th August 2013 for recommendations of DARE as a means of anal cancer screening in HIV positive MSM. Guidelines were examined in detail if they were clinical guidelines, including both prevention and treatment protocols and were in English. Guidelines were excluded if they were restricted to limited areas (e.g. antiretroviral therapy only, children or pregnant women, strategies for prevention/testing). Information was extracted regarding recommendation of DARE as a screening method, the frequency of DARE recommended, target population for screening and the strength of evidence supporting this.

Results

30 regional and national guidelines were included and examined in detail. Only 2 recommended DARE. The ‘European AIDS Clinical Society Guidelines’ recommends DARE every 1–3 years for HIV positive MSM whilst the ‘US Guideline for prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents’ recommends an annual DARE for the HIV + population in general. None of these guidelines specify the age of commencing screening. In each case, the highest level of evidence supporting these two recommendations was expert opinion.

Conclusions

Few HIV guidelines discuss or recommend DARE as a means of anal cancer screening. Studies of the efficacy, acceptability and cost-effectiveness of DARE are needed to assess its role in anal cancer screening.

Tumour- and treatment-related colostomy rates following mitomycin C or cisplatin chemoradiation with or without maintenance chemotherapy in squamous cell carcinoma of the anus in the ACT II trial

BACKGROUND

Squamous cell carcinoma of the anus (SCCA) is highly sensitive to chemoradiation (CRT) which achieves good loco-regional control and preserves anal function. However, some patients require permanent stoma formation either as a result of surgery on relapse, poor anal function or treatment-related symptoms. Our aim was to determine patient, tumour and treatment-related colostomy rates following CRT and maintenance chemotherapy in the ACT II trial.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The ACT II trial recruited 940 patients comparing 5FU-based CRT using cisplatin (CisP) or mitomycin C (MMC) with or without additional maintenance chemotherapy. We investigated the association between colostomy-free survival (CFS) and progression-free survival (PFS) with age, gender, T-stage, N-stage, treatment and baseline haemoglobin.

RESULTS

The median follow-up was 5.1 years (n = 884 evaluable/940); tumour site canal (84%), margin (14%); stage T1/T2 (52%), T3/T4 (46%); N+ (32%), N0 (62%). Twenty out of 118 (17%) colostomies fashioned before CRT were reversed within 8 months. One hundred and twelve patients had a post-treatment colostomy due to persistent disease (98) or morbidity (14). Fifty-two per cent (61/118) of all pre-treatment colostomies were never reversed. The 5-year CFS rates were 68% MMC/Maint, 70% CisP/Maint, 68% MMC/No-maint and 65% CisP/No-maint. CRT with CisP did not improve CFS when compared with MMC (hazard ratio: 1.04, 95% confidence interval: 0.82-1.31, P = 0.74). The 5-year CFS rates were higher for T1/T2 (79%) than T3/T4 (54%) tumours and higher for node-negative (72%) than node-positive (60%) patients. Significant predictors of CFS were gender, T-stage and haemoglobin, while treatment factors had no impact on outcome. Similar associations were found between PFS and tumour/treatment-related factors.

CONCLUSIONS

The majority (52%) of pre-treatment colostomies were never reversed. Neither CRT with 5FU/CisP nor maintenance chemotherapy impacted on CFS. The low risk of colostomy for late effects (1.7%) is likely to be associated with the modest total radiotherapy dose. The predictive factors for CFS were T-stage, gender and baseline haemoglobin.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ISRCTN 26715889.

Anal Pap smears and anal cancer: what dermatologists should know

Squamous epithelial cells are susceptible to infection by the human papillomavirus. Infection of squamous epithelium with oncogenic human papillomavirus types is associated with development of dysplasia and potential malignant transformation. Historically, cervical cancer has been the most prevalent human papillomavirus-induced squamous neoplasia. However, because of widespread screening via Pap smear testing, rates of cervical cancer in the United States have decreased dramatically during the past 50 years. Rates of anal cancer, in contrast, have doubled during the past 30 years. The groups at highest risk for development of anal cancer are men who have sex with men, HIV-positive patients, and patients immunosuppressed as a result of solid-organ transplantation. By detecting dysplasia before it develops into invasive cancer, anal Pap smears may be a potentially useful screening tool for anal cancer, particularly in individuals known to be at increased risk. However, at this time, sufficient data supporting the benefit of anal Pap smear screening are lacking. With insufficient evidence, no national health care organizations currently recommend the use of anal Pap smears as a routine screening test, even among high-risk groups.

Technical aspects of radiation therapy for anal cancer

Historically treated with surgery, current practice recommends anal carcinoma to be treated with a combination of chemotherapy and radiation. This review will examine the anatomy, modes of disease spread and recurrence, and evaluate the existing evidence for treatment options for these tumors. An in-depth examination of specific radiation therapy (RT) techniques-such as conventional 3D-conformal RT and intensity-modulated RT-will be discussed along with modern dose constraints. RT field arrangement, patient setup, and recommended gross and clinical target volume (CTV) contours will be considered. Areas in need of further investigation, such as the role in treatment for positron emission tomography (PET) will be explored.

Rare tumors of the rectum. Narrative review

Most rectal neoplasms are adenocarcinomas, but there is a small percentage of tumors which are of other histological cell lines such as neuroendocrine tumors, sarcomas, lymphomas and squamous cell carcinomas, which have special characteristics and different treatments. We have reviewed these rare tumors of the rectum from a clinical and surgical point of view.

MRI of anal cancer: assessing response to definitive chemoradiotherapy

Anal cancer is an uncommon malignancy of the gastrointestinal tract but has a relatively good prognosis with an 80% 5-year overall survival. In this article, we review the role of MRI for assessing treatment response in anal cancer after completion of definitive chemoradiotherapy. New generation MRI scanners with optimal-phased array body coils, resulting in better signal to noise and improved contrast and spatial resolution, have contributed to high-resolution imaging in clinical practice enabling visualization of relevant anatomy including the sphincter complex, adjacent structures, mesorectal and pelvic lymph nodes with a diameter down to 2 mm. Multiplanar, high-resolution T2-weighted and diffusion-weighted sequences have a role in initial locoregional staging of anal SCC, assisting radiotherapy planning, as well as in assessing response to treatment and treatment-related complications.

Human papillomavirus genotypes in human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients with anal pathology in Madrid, Spain

BACKGROUND

We studied anal specimens to determine the distribution of human papillomavirus (HPV) genotypes and co-infection occurrence. This information will contribute to the knowledge of HPV genotype distributions and provide an estimate of the prevalence of different oncogenic HPV genotypes found in patients in Madrid (Spain).

METHODS

We studied a total of 82 anal biopsies from the Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón of Madrid. These included 4 specimens with benign lesions, 52 specimens with low-grade anal squamous intraepithelial lesion, 24 specimens with high-grade anal squamous intraepithelial lesions and 2 specimens with invasive anal carcinoma. HPV genotyping was performed with PCR amplification and reverse dot blot hybridization.

RESULTS

We detected 33 different HPV genotypes, including 16 HPVs associated with a high risk of carcinogenesis, 3 HPVs associated with a highly likely risk of carcinogenesis and 14 HPVs associated with a low-risk of carcinogenesis. In two specimens, an uncharacterized HPV genotype was detected. The most frequent HPV genotypes found were HPV-16 (10.3%; 95% CI: 6.6%-15.1%), HPV-52 (8.5%; 95% CI: 5.2%-13%) and HPV-43/44 (7.6%; 95% CI: 4.5%-11.9%). HPV-18 was only detected in 0.9% (95% CI: 0.1%-3.2%) of the total viruses detected in all lesions. HPV co-infections were found in 83.9% of all types of lesions. The majority of cases (90.2%) were concomitantly infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of high-risk carcinogenic genotypes in anal pathological samples was remarkable. Therefore, further studies that include a greater number of samples, particularly invasive carcinoma cases are needed to evaluate the potential influence of these HPV genotypes in the appearance of anal carcinomas. Also, the influence of other accompanying infections should be evaluated clarify the appearance of this type of carcinoma.

VIRTUAL SLIDES

The virtual slide(s) for this article can be found here: http://www.diagnosticpathology.diagnomx.eu/vs/2075238024106058.

DCF (docetaxel, cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil) chemotherapy is a promising treatment for recurrent advanced squamous cell anal carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Squamous cell carcinoma of the anal canal (SCCA) is a rare disease, mostly diagnosed at early stage. After concurrent chemoradiation (CRT) with mitomycin C and 5-fluorouracil (5FU), local or metastatic recurrences occur in >20% of the patients. After treatment failure, cisplatin (CDDP)-based chemotherapy is the standard option, but complete response (CR) is a rare event and the prognosis remains poor.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Eight consecutive patients with advanced recurrent SCCA after CRT were treated with DCF regimen (docetaxel 75 mg/m(2) day 1, CDDP 75 mg/m(2) day 1 and 5FU at 750 mg/m(2)/day for 5 days every 3 weeks). Tumour samples were analysed for human papillomavirus (HPV) genotyping, as well as p16 and p53 expression.

RESULTS

After a median follow-up of 41 months, the overall survival rate at 12 months was 62.5% (95% CI 22.9-86.1 months). Four patients achieved a complete remission and remain relapse-free at the time of analysis with a progression-free survival of 19, 33, 43 and 88 months. Three of these patients underwent surgery for all involved metastatic sites. For all of them, pathological CR was confirmed. DCF regimen appeared feasible in these patients previously exposed to pelvic CRT, and no grade IV toxicity occurred. All patients in complete remission had HPV-16-positive SCCA, while HPV could only be detected among 50% of the non-responding patients. Of interest, immunohistochemical study revealed a p16(+)/p53(-) phenotype in these patients, while none of non-responders expressed p16.

CONCLUSION

The high level of complete and long-lasting remission among SCCA patients treated with DCF regimen supports the assessment of this strategy in prospective cohorts.

Anal cancer: are we making progress?

Anal cancer is an uncommon malignancy. There have been some intriguing developments in the past 3 years, in terms of our understanding of the molecular biology and processes that lead to anal cancer. There have also been some notable successes in prevention, imaging and treatment. Nonsurgical treatment is highly effective. The primary aim of such treatment is to achieve loco-regional control with chemoradiation (CRT), and preserve anal function without a colostomy. Randomised phase III trials presented or published over the past 3 years have explored novel strategies of neoadjuvant chemotherapy, maintenance chemotherapy, radiotherapy dose escalation and replacement of mitomycln C (MMC) with cisplatin in CRT. All have failed to improve on the current standard of care; i.e. MMC/ 5 fluorouracil (5FU) chemoradiation. However, more conformal strategies such as intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) appear feasible to deliver with reduced toxicity, and may offer an opportunity to dose-escalate both to gross tumour and areas of potential nodal spread. Preliminary outcome data suggest no loss of efficacy. We evaluate the relevant recent literature published over the past 2 years, and summarize interesting and important new findings, with the aim of bringing the reader up-to-date on anal cancer.

Anal intraepithelial neoplasia and squamous cell carcinoma in HIV-infected adults

Anal cancer is one of the most common non-AIDS-defining malignancies in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy. Its precursor lesion, anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN), is highly prevalent in HIV-infected populations. More than 90% of anal squamous cell cancers are attributable to human papillomavirus (HPV). While the biology of HPV-related intraepithelial neoplasia is consistent across lower anogenital sites, the natural history of AIN is not well established and cannot be assumed to be identical to that of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Screening strategies to prevent anal cancer should be developed based on robust natural history data in HIV-infected and uninfected populations. Likewise, treatments need to be tested in randomized clinical trials, and reserved for those at significant risk of progression to cancer. This review covers the epidemiology, pathogenesis and immunology of HPV infection, AIN and anal cancer, and summarizes the current diagnosis, screening and treatment strategies in HIV-infected adults.

Magnetic resonance imaging of rectal and anal cancer

Magnetic resonance imaging plays a pivotal role in the imaging and staging of rectal and anal carcinomas. Rectal adenocarcinomas and anal squamous cell carcinomas behave differently, and are staged and treated differently. This article attempts to explain these 2 entities, which share the same regions of interest, in a comprehensive manner.

Faecal incontinence after chemoradiotherapy in anal cancer survivors: long-term results of a national cohort

PURPOSE

To examine the prevalence and severity of faecal incontinence amongst anal cancer survivors after chemoradiotherapy.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Anal cancer survivors from a complete, unselected, national cohort, minimum 2-years follow-up, were invited to a cross-sectional study. The St. Mark's incontinence score was used to evaluate occurrence and degree of faecal incontinence the last four weeks. The results were compared to age- and sex-matched volunteers from the general population.

RESULTS

Of 199 invited survivors and 1211 volunteers, 66% and 21%, respectively, signed informed consent. The survivors had significantly higher St. Mark's score than the volunteers (mean 9.7 vs. 1.1, p<0.001). Incontinence of stool of any degree was reported by 43% vs. 5% (OR 4.0, CI 2.73-6.01), and urgency was reported by 64% vs. 6% (OR 6.6, CI 4.38-9.90) of the survivors and volunteers, respectively. Only 29% of those with leakage of liquid stool used constipating drugs. Survivors of locally advanced tumours had a higher incontinence score (p<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Moderate to severe faecal incontinence is common amongst anal cancer survivors. Post-treatment follow-up should include the evaluation of continence, and incontinent survivors should be offered better symptom management and multidisciplinary approach if simple measures are insufficient.

Impaired health-related quality of life after chemoradiotherapy for anal cancer: late effects in a national cohort of 128 survivors

BACKGROUND

Chemoradiotherapy is an effective treatment for anal cancer, yet from follow-up many survivors seem to suffer from late effects. Data of long-term health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in anal cancer survivors are limited, and there is a growing interest in cancer survivorship.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A national cohort of all anal cancer survivors treated with curative chemoradiotherapy in 2000-2007 was invited to a cross-sectional study. Of 199 eligible survivors, 128 (64%) returned the questionnaires, the median time since diagnosis was 66 months. The median age was 61 years and 79% were women. HRQOL was evaluated with EORTC questionnaires QLQ-C30 and QLQ-CR29, and neurotoxicity with the Scale of Chemotherapy-Induced Neurotoxicity. An age- and sex-matched reference group of volunteers (n = 269) not treated for pelvic cancer answered the same questionnaires. Results from QLQ-C30 of the reference group were compared to Norwegian and Dutch normative data.

RESULTS

The mean scores of anal cancer survivors were poorer compared to volunteers and normative data. Anal cancer survivors reported significant impairment of function, especially social and role function, compared to the volunteers (difference ≥ 20 points, p < 0.001). Survivors had markedly increased scores for fatigue, dyspnoea, insomnia and diarrhoea (difference ≥ 15 points, p < 0.001). The global quality of life was significantly reduced (difference 15 points, p < 0.001). Anal cancer survivors had increased stool frequency, more buttock pain, flatulence, faecal incontinence, impotence (males), dyspareunia and reduced sexual interest (females) (difference ≥ 15 points, p < 0.001). There was increased frequency of tinnitus in survivors treated with cisplatin-based chemotherapy (p = 0.004).

CONCLUSIONS

Survivors after chemoradiotherapy for anal cancer have significant long-term impairment of HRQOL. Reduced social, role and sexual function, and increased diarrhoea, incontinence for gas and stools, and buttock pain were commonly reported. Increased awareness of this may lead to better management of late effects and better care for cancer survivors.

Anal cancer - a review

Anal cancer accounts for only 1.5% of gastrointestinal malignancies but this disease has shown a steady increase in incidence particularly in HIV positive males. The understanding of pathophysiology and treatment of anal cancer has changed radically over last thirty years. Risk factors have been identified and organ preservation by chemoradiotherapy has become a standard. This article aims to review the clinical presentation, diagnostic evaluation, and treatment options for anal cancer in the light of current literature.

Anorectal opportunistic diseases in human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patients: spectrum of cross-sectional imaging findings

Patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus, particularly male homosexuals, are prone to develop disorders involving the anorectal and perineal structures. Cross-sectional imaging techniques, such as multidetector computed tomography with multiplanar reformations and magnetic resonance imaging performed with phased-array coils, are increasingly adopted to detect and stage infectious and neoplastic diseases, and to assess posttreatment modifications. Pyogenic perianal sepsis may be usefully investigated with imaging, particularly to assess the presence and topography of abscess collections to allow a correct surgical choice. Rectal inflammatory involvement is frequently detected during intestinal opportunistic infections, such as cytomegalovirus, pseudomembranous, and amebic colitides, including primary and secondary imaging signs consistent with proctocolitis. Anal carcinoma and intestinal lymphoma are increasingly diagnosed; therefore, special attention should be paid to the identification of solid tissue consistent with tumor; furthermore, MRI provides optimal staging and posttreatment follow-up of neoplastic lesions. Knowledge of this varied spectrum of anorectal and perineal opportunistic abnormalities and their imaging appearances should help radiologists to propose appropriate differential diagnoses, suggest correlation with laboratory and microbiological assays or biopsy, and reliably assess therapeutic response.

MRI and CT of anal carcinoma: a pictorial review

BACKGROUND

Squamocellular anal carcinoma is increasingly diagnosed in patients with risk factors.

METHODS

State-of-the-art imaging with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) using phased-array coils and volumetric multidetector computed tomography (CT) provides detailed visualisation of anal disorders, identification and extent assessment of neoplastic tissue, detection and characterisation of nodal and visceral metastases. MRI has been recommended by the European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO) as the preferred modality of choice to stage anal cancer, taking into account the maximum tumour diameter, invasion of adjacent structures and regional lymph node involvement.

RESULTS

Cross-sectional imaging techniques allow the identification of coexisting complications, and differentiation from other perineal abnormalities.

CONCLUSION

Cross-sectional imaging is useful for planning radiotherapy, surgical drainage or salvage abdomino-perineal resection. After chemo-radiotherapy, MRI follow-up provides confident reassessment of therapeutic response, persistent or recurrent disease. TEACHING POINTS : • Anal carcinoma is increasingly diagnosed in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), anoreceptive intercourse, chronic inflammatory bowel disease. • An established association exists with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and premalignant intra-epithelial dysplasia. • Phased-array MRI is recommended as the preferred imaging modality for regional staging. • Imaging allows detection of infectious complications, planning of radiotherapy or salvage surgery. • Follow-up MRI allows reliable assessment of therapeutic response after chemo-radiotherapy.