1
|
Raguso RA. Hidden worlds within flowers. Curr Biol 2023; 33:R506-R512. [PMID: 37279684 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
There is a growing realization that ecological interactions take place at many scales, from acorns to forests, and that formerly overlooked community members, particularly microbes, can play outsized ecological roles. Beyond their primary function as the reproductive organs of angiosperms, flowers constitute resource-rich, ephemeral habitats teeming with flower-loving symbionts, or 'anthophiles'. The physical, chemical, and structural properties of flowers combine to create a habitat filter, selectively determining which anthophiles can reside there, and how, and when they interact. The microhabitats within flowers can provide shelter from predators or inclement weather, places to eat, sleep, thermoregulate, hunt, mate or reproduce. In turn, floral microhabitats contain the full range of mutualists, antagonists and apparent commensals, whose complex interactions impact how flowers look and smell, how profitable they are to foraging pollinators, and how selection feeds back upon the traits shaping those interactions. Recent studies suggest coevolutionary paths by which floral symbionts might be co-opted as mutualists and provide compelling examples in which ambush predators or florivores are recruited as floral allies. Unbiased studies that include the full roster of floral symbionts are likely to reveal novel links and additional nuance in the rich ecological communities hidden within flowers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Raguso
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Munawar A, Xu Y, Abou El-Ela AS, Zhang Y, Zhong J, Mao Z, Chen X, Guo H, Zhang C, Sun Y, Zhu Z, Baldwin IT, Zhou W. Tissue-specific regulation of volatile emissions moves predators from flowers to attacked leaves. Curr Biol 2023:S0960-9822(23)00556-0. [PMID: 37224808 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Plant-predator mutualisms have been widely described in nature.1,2 How plants fine-tune their mutualistic interactions with the predators they recruit remains poorly understood. In the wild potato (Solanum kurtzianum), predatory mites, Neoseiulus californicus, are recruited to flowers of undamaged plants but rapidly move downward when the herbivorous mites, Tetranychus urticae, damage leaves. This "up-down" movement within the plant corresponds to the shift of N. californicus from palynivory to carnivory, as they change from feeding on pollen to herbivores when moving between different plant organs. This up-down movement of N. californicus is mediated by the organ-specific emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in flowers and herbivory-elicited leaves. Experiments with exogenous applications, biosynthetic inhibitors, and transient RNAi revealed that salicylic acid and jasmonic acid signaling in flowers and leaves mediates both the changes in VOC emissions and the up-down movement of N. californicus. This alternating communication between flowers and leaves mediated by organ-specific VOC emissions was also found in a cultivated variety of potato, suggesting the agronomic potential of using flowers as reservoirs of natural enemies in the control of potato pests.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Asim Munawar
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens, Institute of Insect Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yi Xu
- Department of Plant Pathology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Amr S Abou El-Ela
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens, Institute of Insect Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture (Saba Basha), Alexandria University, Alexandria 21531, Egypt
| | - Yadong Zhang
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens, Institute of Insect Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jian Zhong
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens, Institute of Insect Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Zhiyao Mao
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens, Institute of Insect Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xuan Chen
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens, Institute of Insect Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Han Guo
- Department of Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Yunnan Key Laboratory for Wild Plant Resources, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Chao Zhang
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens, Institute of Insect Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yiqiao Sun
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, Universitätstrasse 6, 8006 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Zengrong Zhu
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens, Institute of Insect Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Ian T Baldwin
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str. 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Wenwu Zhou
- Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens, Institute of Insect Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Alcantara Viana JV, Massufaro Giffu M, Hachuy‐Filho L. The silence of prey: Hummingbirds do not respond to potential ambush predators on flowers. AUSTRAL ECOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/aec.13019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- João Vitor Alcantara Viana
- Laboratório de Ecologia da Polinização e Interações Departamento de Botânica Instituto de Biociências de Botucatu Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” Botucatu São PauloBrazil
- Programa de Pós‐graduação em Ecologia Laboratório de Interações Multitróficas e Biodiversidade Departamento de Biologia Animal Instituto de Biologia Universidade Estadual de Campinas Campinas São PauloBrazil
| | - Murilo Massufaro Giffu
- Laboratório de Ecologia da Polinização e Interações Departamento de Botânica Instituto de Biociências de Botucatu Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” Botucatu São PauloBrazil
- Programa de Pós‐graduação em Zoologia Laboratório de Ecologia da Polinização e Interações Departamento de Zoologia Instituto de Biociências de Botucatu Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” Botucatu São Paulo Brazil
| | - Leandro Hachuy‐Filho
- Laboratório de Ecologia da Polinização e Interações Departamento de Botânica Instituto de Biociências de Botucatu Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” Botucatu São PauloBrazil
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Mesquita-Neto JN, Vieira ALC, Schlindwein C. Minimum size threshold of visiting bees of a buzz-pollinated plant species: consequences for pollination efficiency. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2021; 108:1006-1015. [PMID: 34114214 DOI: 10.1002/ajb2.1681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE Flowering plants with poricidal anthers are commonly visited by buzzing bees, which vibrate flowers to extract pollen. However, not all flower visitors are in fact pollinators, and features such as body size and duration of flower visits are important factors in determining pollination effectiveness. We tested whether bee-to-flower size relationships predict the pollination effectiveness of flower visitors of a buzz-pollinated species (Chamaecrista ramosa, Fabaceae). METHODS We sorted 13 bee taxa into three groups: smaller than, equivalent to ("fit-size"), and larger than flower herkogamy (spatial separation between anthers and stigma). We expected the latter two groups to touch the stigmas, which would be an indicator of pollination effectiveness, more frequently than the first group. To test this hypothesis, we assessed contact with stigmas, foraging behavior, and duration of visits for the three size groups of bees. RESULTS Our data reveal that small bees scarcely touched the stigmas, while large and fit-size bees were the most efficient pollinators, achieving high stigma-touching rates, conducting much shorter flower visits, and visiting flowers and conspecific plants at high rates during foraging bouts. CONCLUSIONS The results did not show size-matching among bees and flowers, as expected, but rather a minimum size threshold of efficient pollinators. The finding of such a threshold is a nonarbitrary approach to predicting pollination effectiveness of visitors to herkogamous flowers with poricidal anthers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- José N Mesquita-Neto
- Centro de Investigación en Estudios Avanzados del Maule, Vicerrectoría de Investigación y Postgrado, Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca, Chile
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Grupo Plebeia-Ecologia de Abelhas e da Polinização, Av. Presidente Antônio Carlos, 6627, Caixa Postal 486, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Ana Luísa C Vieira
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Grupo Plebeia-Ecologia de Abelhas e da Polinização, Av. Presidente Antônio Carlos, 6627, Caixa Postal 486, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Clemens Schlindwein
- Departamento de Botânica, Grupo Plebeia-Ecologia de Abelhas e da Polinização, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Presidente Antônio Carlos, 6627, Caixa Postal 486, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, CEP 31270-901, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Mathis KA, Bronstein JL. Our Current Understanding of Commensalism. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ECOLOGY EVOLUTION AND SYSTEMATICS 2020. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-011720-040844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Commensalisms, interactions between two species in which one species benefits and the other experiences no net effect, are frequently mentioned in the ecological literature but are surprisingly little studied. Here we review and synthesize our limited understanding of commensalism. We then argue that commensalism is not a single type of interaction; rather, it is a suite of phenomena associated with distinct ecological processes and evolutionary consequences. For each form of commensalism we define, we present evidence for how, where, and why it occurs, including when it is evolutionarily persistent and when it is an occasional outcome of interactions that are usually mutualistic or antagonistic. We argue that commensalism should be of great interest in the study of species interactions due to its location at the center of the continuum between positive and negative outcomes. Finally, we offer a roadmap for future research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn A. Mathis
- Department of Biology, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts 01610, USA
| | - Judith L. Bronstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Benoit AD, Kalisz S. Predator Effects on Plant-Pollinator Interactions, Plant Reproduction, Mating Systems, and Evolution. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ECOLOGY, EVOLUTION, AND SYSTEMATICS 2020. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012120-094926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Plants are the foundation of the food web and therefore interact directly and indirectly with myriad organisms at higher trophic levels. They directly provide nourishment to mutualistic and antagonistic primary consumers (e.g., pollinators and herbivores), which in turn are consumed by predators. These interactions produce cascading indirect effects on plants (either trait-mediated or density-mediated). We review how predators affect plant-pollinator interactions and thus how predators indirectly affect plant reproduction, fitness, mating systems, and trait evolution. Predators can influence pollinator abundance and foraging behavior. In many cases, predators cause pollinators to visit plants less frequently and for shorter durations. This decline in visitation can lead to pollen limitation and decreased seed set. However, alternative outcomes can result due to differences in predator, pollinator, and plant functional traits as well as due to altered interaction networks with plant enemies. Furthermore, predators may indirectly affect the evolution of plant traits and mating systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amanda D. Benoit
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA;,
| | - Susan Kalisz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA;,
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Rodríguez-Gironés MA, Jiménez OM. Encounters with predators fail to trigger predator avoidance in bumblebees, Bombus terrestris (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Many species must learn to identify their predators, but little is known about the effect of direct encounters on the development of predator avoidance. We asked whether bumblebees, Bombus terrestris, learn to avoid predators, whether learning depends on the conspicuousness of predators and whether bumblebees learn to identify predators or simply to avoid dangerous patches. To answer these questions, we allowed bumblebees to forage in an enclosed meadow of 15 artificial flowers containing a yellow female crab spider, Thomisus onustus. Flowers were yellow in half of the trials and white in the other half. Spiders could remain at the same flower throughout the experiment or swap flowers between bee foraging bouts. Of the 60 bees used in the experiment, eight were killed by the spiders and nine stopped foraging without finishing the trial. Death or refusal to forage typically occurred early in the trial. Regardless of the treatment, the probability of landing at the spider-harbouring flower increased with time. Previous encounters with heterospecific individuals can therefore be a poor source of information about their predatory nature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miguel A Rodríguez-Gironés
- Estación Experimental de Zonas Áridas, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Carretera de Sacrament s/n, La Cañada de San Urbano, Almeria, Spain
| | - Olga M Jiménez
- Estación Experimental de Zonas Áridas, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Carretera de Sacrament s/n, La Cañada de San Urbano, Almeria, Spain
| |
Collapse
|