Prospective randomized controlled multi-centre trial of cuffed or uncuffed endotracheal tubes in small children

The in-vitro performance of a modern portable respirator in different lung models and as an alternative intensive care respirator: A simulation based cohort study

BACKGROUND

Transporting ventilated patients safely and without loss of efficacy is a challenge. Portable ventilators are generally used to transport critically ill patients, but their performance is often limited.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to compare the in-vitro performance of a modern portable respirator with a modern intensive care respirator for different lung settings.

DESIGN

An in-vitro testing of a portable and an intensive care respirator.

SETTINGS

Anaesthesia Department at the University Children's Hospital Zurich.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The portable respirator Hamilton T1 was compared with the established intensive care respirator bellavista1000 (BV) while applying different settings with the ASL 5000 (ASL) device. The ASL can simulate neonatal, paediatric, and adult lung settings with normal or impaired lung function. Accuracy of delivered tidal volumes, proximal and distal airway pressures and mechanical lung properties were assessed.

RESULTS

Bland-Altman analyses showed higher accuracy for applied tidal volumes delivered by the portable respirator, 12.6% [95% confidence interval (CI) -8.9 to 34.2], compared with the intensive care respirator, 15.9% (95% CI -18.5 to 50.3). In neonatal and infant lung models particularly, the accuracy of delivered tidal volumes by the portable respirator, 13.2% (95% CI -8.9 to 35.3) was superior to those delivered by the intensive care respirator, 20.9% (95%CI -15.9 to 57.7). Lung compliance estimation was performed more accurately by the intensive care respirator, whereas the portable respirator measured airway resistance more accurately. However, both respirators showed only moderate overall accuracy when assessing lung mechanics.

CONCLUSION

The tested portable respirator proved to be a useful device for invasive ventilation of critically ill patients. The overall performance is non-inferior to a conventional intensive care respirator.

Endotracheal Tube Cuff Inflation Methods in School-Age Children: Flow-Volume Loop-Guided Versus Stethoscope-Guided

Background: In pediatric patients, the intracuff pressure of endotracheal tubes should be as low as possible to prevent injury to the tracheal mucosal wall. The conventional stethoscope-guided technique relies solely on the operator's sensitivity of audible detection, which may lead to increased intracuff pressure. This study was conducted to compare the flow-volume loop guided technique for endotracheal tube cuff inflation with the stethoscope-guided technique and to determine whether the flow-volume loop guided technique results in lower and more consistent intracuff pressure. Methods: The participants were randomized to undergo either the flow-volume loop guided or the stethoscope-guided cuff inflation technique. In the flow-volume loop guided group, the cuff was inflated until the flow-volume loop was completely sealed. In the stethoscope-guided group, the cuff was inflated until the leakage was not audible. Cuff inflation was performed twice with incremental volumes of 0.5 mL and 0.2 mL to determine the consistency of the methods. The primary outcome was the intracuff pressure, and the secondary outcome was the incidence of postextubation complications. Results: Eighty participants (4 to 12 years old) were included in this study. The use of the flow-volume loop guided technique was associated with a lower cuff pressure versus use of the stethoscope-guided technique when inflated at the 0.5-mL increment [14 (6-18) cm H2O vs 19 (9-24) cm H2O; P < .001] and at the 0.2-mL increment [14 (6-18) cm H2O vs 18 (9-24) cm H2O; P < .001], with better consistency between the measured cuff pressures (z = -2.299; P = .02). The presence of postextubation complications (6/80) was not significantly different between the 2 groups but was associated with the American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status (P < .001). Conclusions: The flow-volume loop guided technique for endotracheal tube cuff inflation is a more objective technique that effectively seals the airway with the lower cuff pressure to allow for mechanical ventilation in pediatric subjects during anesthesia.

Exchange rates of second generation Microcuff® pediatric endotracheal tubes in children weighing more than 3 kg : A retrospective audit

BACKGROUND

Cuffed endotracheal tubes (cETT) pose the potential advantage of an infrequent need for reintubation in pediatric patients compared to uncuffed tubes. The aim of this study was to investigate tube exchange rates using second generation Microcuff® pediatric endotracheal tubes (PET) with an adapted sizing recommendation in a large single institution cohort of children and to identify potential variables associated with an elevated risk of tube exchange.

METHODS

Patient data obtained from the electronic patient data management system of the Department of Anesthesia, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Switzerland, were retrospectively assessed for demographic and anthropometric information, size of the internal tube diameter used for positive pressure ventilation and divergence from the size recommendation chart.

RESULTS

Data from 14,188 children younger than 16 years (median 5.3 years) and weighing at least 3 kg who underwent oral or nasal tracheal intubation using second generation Microcuff® PET between 2009 and 2015 were included. Of 13,219 oral tracheal intubations 12,049 (84.9%) were performed according to the manufacturer's size recommendation and 1170 with divergent endotracheal tubes. The odds ratio (OR) of oral reintubation was 0.13% (95% confidence interval 0.08-0.22%) for cases using the manufacture's size recommendation correctly and 22.74% (95% confidence interval 20.42-25.23%) for patients intubated with a not recommended tube (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that the second generation Microcuff® PETs can be reliably used with low tube exchange rates across the entire pediatric age range when the tube size is selected according to the manufacturer's size recommendation chart. Adherence to the manufacturer's tube size recommendation is urgently advised.

Cuffed versus uncuffed endotracheal tubes in neonates undergoing noncardiac surgeries: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

The efficacy and safety of cuffed endotracheal tubes (ETTs) in neonates are still unclear, this study aimed to assess the efficacy of cuffed versus uncuffed ETTs in neonate undergoing noncardiac surgeries.

METHODS

Neonates scheduled for noncardiac surgeries were randomized into two groups according to the type of airway device during general anesthesia: cuffed ETT group (n = 60) and the uncuffed ETT group (n = 60). The primary outcome was the incidence of ETT exchange to find the appropriate ETT. Other outcomes included: duration of intubation, lung ultrasound score, and incidence of postoperative complications (croup, wheezes, hypoxia, etc.).

RESULTS

The frequency of ETT exchange was lower in the cuffed ETT group compared to the uncuffed one {1 (1.7%) vs. 28 (46.7%), p = .0001; relative risk [95% confidence interval]: 0.54 [0.43-0.69]}. Postoperative adverse events were comparable between both groups except for significantly higher post extubation croup in the uncuffed ETT group compared to the cuffed ETT {10 (16.7%) vs. 3(5%), p value = .04, relative risk (95% confidence interval): 1.14 (1-1.29)}.

CONCLUSION

In full term neonates undergoing noncardiac surgeries, the use of cuffed ETT was associated with less need to tracheal tube exchange and less incidence of postoperative croup, without increasing the postoperative respiratory complications compared to uncuffed ETT.

Comparing hoarseness and sore throat after extubation at different endotracheal cuff pressures: A double-blinded clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Sore throat and hoarseness are two common complications of intubation in patients with general anesthesia. This research aimed to compare the effect of different endotracheal cuff pressures on sore throat and hoarseness after general anesthesia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present double-blinded clinical trial was conducted on 45 patients who are candidates for surgery with general anesthesia in autumn and winter 2021. The participants were divided into three groups of 15 through a permuted block randomization. The 20-24 cm H2O (level of pressure) group was labeled as A, and the 25-29 cm H2O group B and the 30-34 cm H2O group was known as group C. All the patients were operated. The endotracheal intubation was done for men with tubes #8-8.5 and for women with tubes 7-7.5. The presence and severity sore throat and the hoarseness after operation were checked by a nurse after recovery. Data were recorded in a researcher-made checklist. The data were analyzed in SPSS 19. P <0.05 was considered.

RESULTS

The results revealed that the majority of participants suffered a slight hoarseness within the 1st hour (73.3%), 12th hour (91.1%), and 24th hour (100%) after recovery. Similarly, most participants experienced a slight hoarseness in the 1st hour (57.8%), 12th hour (71.1%), and 24th hour (91.1%) after recovery. Kruskal-Wallis test results showed no statistically significant correlation between hoarseness and the level of endotracheal cuff pressure in the three groups (P > .05).

CONCLUSION

According to the results of the present study, despite the fact that the range of 20 to 34 cm of water is a safe and risk-free range in terms of causing sore throat and hoarseness, and there was no difference between the pressures in the three groups, but at higher pressure (groups 2 and 3), the amount of sore throat and hoarseness was more and there was a statistically significant difference at different times within group. Therefore, as much as possible, the amount of pressure should be adjusted according to the need and avoid applying excess pressure.

Top 100 most-cited articles on pediatric anesthesia from 1990 to 2023

Pediatric anesthesia presents greater challenges than does adult anesthesia. This bibliometric analysis aimed to analyze the top 100 most cited articles to be better understand the hot spots and prospects in pediatric anesthesia. Articles and reviews related to pediatric anesthesia were retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection from 1990 to 2023. A bibliometric analysis of the top 100 most cited articles was also performed using information such as topics, author names, countries, institutions, publication years, and journals. A total of 32 831 articles were identified, with a total of 32 230 citations for the top 100 articles. The peak period for pediatric anesthesia research was from 2005 to 2009. The USA has emerged as the most active country in pediatric anesthesia research. Major journals published included Anesthesia and Analgesia, Anesthesiology, and Pediatrics, underscoring their authority in the field. Clinical studies on the top 100 most cited articles have focused on different stages of the perioperative period, the use of different anesthetic agents, and adverse outcomes in pediatric patients. The current study conducted a bibliometric analysis of the top 100 most cited articles in the field of pediatric anesthesia. Such insights are valuable for identifying research hot spots, assessing academic impact and collaboration in pediatric anesthesia, and guiding future research directions.

Endotracheal tube cuff position in relationship to the walls of the trachea: A retrospective computed tomography-based analysis

Background

The use of cuffed endotracheal tubes (ETTs) has become the standard of care in pediatric practice. The rationale for the use of a cuffed ETT is to minimize pressure around the cricoid while providing an effective airway seal. However, safe care requires that the cuff lie distal to the cricoid ring following endotracheal intubation. The current study demonstrates the capability of computed tomography (CT) imaging in identifying the position of the cuff of the ETT in intubated patients.

Methods

The study included patients ranging in age from 1 month to 10 years who underwent neck and chest CT imaging that required general anesthesia and endotracheal intubation. The location of the ETT and of the cuff within the airway was determined from axial CT images at three levels (proximal, middle, and distal). Anatomical orientations were tabulated, and percent chances of each orientation were determined for the ETT and the cuff.

Results

The study cohort included 42 patients ranging in age from 1 to 114 months. An ETT with a polyvinylchloride cuff was used in 24 patients, and an ETT with a polyurethane cuff was used in 18 patients. The ETT was located near the posterior wall of the trachea in approximately 24-38% of patients, being most likely to be centrally located at the proximal end and at its mid-portion. The middle part of the cuff was most likely to be positioned in the mid-portion of the trachea but tended to skew anteriorly at both the proximal and distal ends.

Conclusion

This is the first study using CT imaging to identify the uniformity of cuff inflation within the trachea in children. With commonly used cuffed ETTs, cuff inflation and the final position of ETT cuff within the tracheal lumen were not uniform. Future investigations are needed to determine the reasons for this asymmetry and its clinical implications.

Factors associated with laryngeal injury after intubation in children: a systematic review

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to evaluate all potential factors associated with laryngeal injury after endotracheal intubation in the pediatric population.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted in Medline, Embase, Cochrane, web of science and Google scholar up to 20th of March 2023. We included all unique articles focusing on factors possibly associated with intubation-injury in pediatric patients. Two independent reviewers determined which articles were relevant by coming to a consensus, quality of evidence was rated using GRADE criteria. All articles were critically appraised according to the PRISMA guidelines. The articles were categorized in four outcome measures: post-extubation stridor, post-extubation upper airway obstruction (UAO) necessitating treatment, laryngeal injury found at laryngoscopy and a diagnosed laryngotracheal stenosis (LTS).

RESULTS

A total of 24 articles with a total of 15.520 patients were included. The incidence of post-extubation stridor varied between 1.0 and 30.3%, of post-extubation UAO necessitating treatment between 1.2 and 39.6%, of laryngeal injury found at laryngoscopy between 34.9 to 97.0% and of a diagnosed LTS between 0 and 11.1%. Although the literature is limited and quality of evidence very low, the level of sedation and gastro-esophageal reflux are the only confirmed associated factors with post-extubation laryngeal injury. The relation with age, weight, gender, duration of intubation, multiple intubations, traumatic intubation, tube size, absence of air leak and infection remain unresolved. The remaining factors are not associated with intubation injury.

CONCLUSION

We clarify the role of the potential factors associated with laryngeal injury after endotracheal intubation in the pediatric population.

Comparison of preformed microcuff and preformed uncuffed endotracheal tubes in pediatric cleft palate surgery-A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Airway management in children with oral cleft surgery carries unique challenges, concerning the proximity of the surgical site and the tracheal tube. We hypothesized that using a Microcuff oral RAE tube would reduce tube exchange and migration rate. We aimed to compare the performance of Microsoft and uncuffed oral performed tracheal tubes in children undergoing cleft palate surgeries regarding the rate of tracheal tube exchange, endobronchial intubation, and ventilatory parameters.

METHODS

One hundred children scheduled for cleft palate surgery were randomized into two groups. In the uncuffed group (n = 50), the tracheal tube was selected using the Modified Coles formula, and in the Microcuff (n = 50) group, the manufacturer's recommendations were followed. Intraoperatively, we compared the primary outcome of tube exchange using the chi-square test. The leak pressure and ventilatory parameters after head extension and mouth gag application were measured in both groups.

RESULTS

The tracheal tube exchange rate was significantly lower in the Microcuff group (0/50) than in uncuffed (19/50) preformed tubes (0 vs. 38% respectively; p <.001). The uncuffed and Microcuff tracheal tube were comparable concerning ventilation parameters and leak pressure of finally placed tubes (17.78 ± 3.95 vs. 19.26 ± 3.81 cm H2 O respectively, with a mean difference (95% CI) of -1.48 (-0.01-2.98); p-value =0.059. Cuff pressure did not vary significantly during the initial hour, and the incidence of postoperative airway morbidity between uncuffed and Microcuff tube was comparable, 5/50 (10%) versus 7/50 (14%) with risk ratio (95% CI) of 0.71(0.24-2.1), p value .49.

CONCLUSION

Microcuff oral preformed tubes performed better than uncuffed tubes regarding tube exchange during cleft palate surgery.

Factors Associated With Post-Extubation Stridor in Infants Intubated in the Pediatric ICU

BACKGROUND

Post-extubation stridor (PES) is a common problem in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) and is associated with extubation failure, longer length of stay, and increased mortality. Infants represent a large proportion of PICU admissions and are at higher risk for PES, making identification and mitigation of factors associated with PES important in this age group.

RESEARCH QUESTION

What factors are associated with PES in infants (age less than 1 year) intubated in the PICU?

STUDY DESIGN & METHODS

The primary outcome was PES as defined by the need for racemic epinephrine within 6 h of extubation. Secondary outcomes were heliox administration and reintubation. Statistical analyses were performed with Fisher's exact test for univariate analyses and multivariate logistic regression.

RESULTS

518 patient charts were retrospectively reviewed. 24.1% of patients developed PES. Duration of mechanical ventilation greater than 48 h was associated with increased risk of PES (odds ratio [OR] = 1.75, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.13-2.71, P = .01), as was nonelective intubation (OR = 2.92, 95% CI 1.91-4.46, P < .01). The presence of a cuff, gastroesophageal reflux disease, prematurity, and known upper airway abnormality had no association with PES. 4.0 endotracheal tubes (ETTs) had an increased association with PES compared to 3.5 ETTs (OR = 1.96, 95% CI 1.18-3.27, P < .01). There was no difference in risk of PES between 3.5 and 3.0 ETTs.

INTERPRETATION

In infants intubated in the PICU, mechanical ventilation greater than 48 h and nonelective intubation were associated with PES. 4.0 ETTs were associated with higher risk of PES compared to 3.5 ETTs. These findings may help providers in ETT selection and to identify infants that may be at increased risk of PES.

Meta-analysis of the influence of tracheal intubation with cuff and without cuff on the incidence of total wound complications in ICU intubation patients

At present, it is still controversial whether patients in intensive care unit (ICU) use tracheal intubation with or without cuff. This paper evaluates the effect of tracheal intubation with and without cuff on overall complication rate of patients with intubation in ICU. The database of PubMed, Embase, Conchrane Library and Web of Science was searched by computer, and the clinical research on intubation with and without cuff in ICU was collected. The time range was from the database establishment to November 2023. Literature was independently screened, information was extracted, and quality was assessed by two researchers. Finally, there were nine studies included, with 11 068 patients (7391 in cuff group and 3677 in non-cuff group). The results showed that the overall complication rate of cuff group was significantly lower than that of non-cuff group, and that of cuff group (RR = 0.53, p < 0.01). In addition, compared with the non-cuff group, the cuff group had a lower number of tracheal intubation changes [RR = 0.05, p < 0.01] and a lower incidence of aspiration pneumonia (RR = 0.45, p = 0.01). Compared with the non-cuff group, the cuff group had a higher incidence of oral mucosal ulcers and pharyngitis (RR = 1.99, p = 0.04), while the cuff group had a lower incidence of laryngeal edema (RR = 0.39, p < 0.01). In ICU intubation patients, the use of cuffs reduces overall complication rate in comparison to patients without cuffs. Therefore, patients with intubation in ICU can recommend tracheal intubation with cuff.

Airway management in neonates and infants: European Society of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care and British Journal of Anaesthesia joint guidelines

Airway management is required during general anaesthesia and is essential for life-threatening conditions such as cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Evidence from recent trials indicates a high incidence of critical events during airway management, especially in neonates or infants. It is important to define the optimal techniques and strategies for airway management in these groups. In this joint European Society of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care (ESAIC) and British Journal of Anaesthesia (BJA) guideline on airway management in neonates and infants, we present aggregated and evidence-based recommendations to assist clinicians in providing safe and effective medical care. We identified seven main areas of interest for airway management: i) preoperative assessment and preparation; ii) medications; iii) techniques and algorithms; iv) identification and treatment of difficult airways; v) confirmation of tracheal intubation; vi) tracheal extubation, and vii) human factors. Based on these areas, Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes (PICO) questions were derived that guided a structured literature search. GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation) methodology was used to formulate the recommendations based on those studies included with consideration of their methodological quality (strong '1' or weak '2' recommendation with high 'A', medium 'B' or low 'C' quality of evidence). In summary, we recommend: 1. Use medical history and physical examination to predict difficult airway management (1C). 2. Ensure adequate level of sedation or general anaesthesia during airway management (1B). 3. Administer neuromuscular blocker before tracheal intubation when spontaneous breathing is not necessary (1C). 4. Use a videolaryngoscope with an age-adapted standard blade as first choice for tracheal intubation (1B). 5. Apply apnoeic oxygenation during tracheal intubation in neonates (1B). 6. Consider a supraglottic airway for rescue oxygenation and ventilation when tracheal intubation fails (1B). 7. Limit the number of tracheal intubation attempts (1C). 8. Use a stylet to reinforce and preshape tracheal tubes when hyperangulated videolaryngoscope blades are used and when the larynx is anatomically anterior (1C). 9. Verify intubation is successful with clinical assessment and end-tidal CO2 waveform (1C). 10. Apply high-flow nasal oxygenation, continuous positive airway pressure or nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation for postextubation respiratory support, when appropriate (1B).

Airway management in neonates and infants: European Society of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care and British Journal of Anaesthesia joint guidelines

Airway management is required during general anaesthesia and is essential for life-threatening conditions such as cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Evidence from recent trials indicates a high incidence of critical events during airway management, especially in neonates or infants. It is important to define the optimal techniques and strategies for airway management in these groups. In this joint European Society of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care (ESAIC) and British Journal of Anaesthesia (BJA) guideline on airway management in neonates and infants, we present aggregated and evidence-based recommendations to assist clinicians in providing safe and effective medical care. We identified seven main areas of interest for airway management: i) preoperative assessment and preparation; ii) medications; iii) techniques and algorithms; iv) identification and treatment of difficult airways; v) confirmation of tracheal intubation; vi) tracheal extubation, and vii) human factors. Based on these areas, Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes (PICO) questions were derived that guided a structured literature search. GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation) methodology was used to formulate the recommendations based on those studies included with consideration of their methodological quality (strong '1' or weak '2' recommendation with high 'A', medium 'B' or low 'C' quality of evidence). In summary, we recommend: 1. Use medical history and physical examination to predict difficult airway management (1С). 2. Ensure adequate level of sedation or general anaesthesia during airway management (1B). 3. Administer neuromuscular blocker before tracheal intubation when spontaneous breathing is not necessary (1С). 4. Use a videolaryngoscope with an age-adapted standard blade as first choice for tracheal intubation (1B). 5. Apply apnoeic oxygenation during tracheal intubation in neonates (1B). 6. Consider a supraglottic airway for rescue oxygenation and ventilation when tracheal intubation fails (1B). 7. Limit the number of tracheal intubation attempts (1C). 8. Use a stylet to reinforce and preshape tracheal tubes when hyperangulated videolaryngoscope blades are used and when the larynx is anatomically anterior (1C). 9. Verify intubation is successful with clinical assessment and end-tidal CO 2 waveform (1C). 10. Apply high-flow nasal oxygenation, continuous positive airway pressure or nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation for postextubation respiratory support, when appropriate (1B).

A new formula to predict the size and insertion depth of cuffed nasotracheal tube in children receiving dental surgery: a retrospective study

This retrospective study aimed to develop a new formula for selecting the appropriate size and determining the depth of the cuffed nasotracheal intubation (NTI) for a cuffed endotracheal tube (cETT) in pediatric patients undergoing dental surgery. In addition, the clinical data on cETT (i.e., the size and depth of insertion) was compared with those calculated with age-based formulas to evaluate their correlation. A total number of 684 patients who received NTI were enrolled (healthy group, n = 607; special-need group, n = 77). The ETT size used in real-world scenarios was smaller (i.e., about 0.5 and 0.94 mm) than the age-based formula, while the ETT depth was greater (i.e., about 1.5 cm) than the age-based formula in both groups. In the healthy group, age, gender, and body weight were identified as predictors of ETT size and depth through multiple linear regression analysis, while only age and body weight were predictors in the special-needs group. New formulas were developed based on these findings, with ETT size = 3.98 + 0.052 × age + 0.048 × gender (male = 1, female = 0) + 0.023 × body weight (kg) and ETT depth = 15.1 + 0.43 × age + 0.300 × gender (male = 1, female = 0) + 0.007 × body weight (kg). The new formula could be useful for both healthy and special-need pediatric populations undergoing dental procedures.

Invasive Ventilatory Support in Patients With Pediatric Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: From the Second Pediatric Acute Lung Injury Consensus Conference

OBJECTIVE

To provide evidence for the Second Pediatric Acute Lung Injury Consensus Conference updated recommendations and consensus statements for clinical practice and future research on invasive mechanical ventilation support of patients with pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome (PARDS).

DATA SOURCES

MEDLINE (Ovid), Embase (Elsevier), and CINAHL Complete (EBSCOhost).

STUDY SELECTION

We included clinical studies of critically ill patients undergoing invasive mechanical ventilation for PARDS, January 2013 to April 2022. In addition, meta-analyses and systematic reviews focused on the adult acute respiratory distress syndrome population were included to explore new relevant concepts (e.g., mechanical power, driving pressure, etc.) still underrepresented in the contemporary pediatric literature.

DATA EXTRACTION

Title/abstract review, full text review, and data extraction using a standardized data collection form.

DATA SYNTHESIS

The Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach was used to identify and summarize relevant evidence and develop recommendations, good practice statements and research statements. We identified 26 pediatric studies for inclusion and 36 meta-analyses or systematic reviews in adults. We generated 12 recommendations, two research statements, and five good practice statements related to modes of ventilation, tidal volume, ventilation pressures, lung-protective ventilation bundles, driving pressure, mechanical power, recruitment maneuvers, prone positioning, and high-frequency ventilation. Only one recommendation, related to use of positive end-expiratory pressure, is classified as strong, with moderate certainty of evidence.

CONCLUSIONS

Limited pediatric data exist to make definitive recommendations for the management of invasive mechanical ventilation for patients with PARDS. Ongoing research is needed to better understand how to guide best practices and improve outcomes for patients with PARDS requiring invasive mechanical ventilation.

A view on pediatric airway management: a cross sectional survey study

BACKGROUND

This survey aimed to investigate routine practices and approaches of clinicians on pediatric airway in anesthesia and intensive care medicine.

METHODS

A 20-question multiple-choice questionnaire with the possibility to provide open text answers was developed and sent. The survey was sent to the members of European Airway Management Society via a web-based platform. Responses were analyzed thematically. Only the answers from one representative of the pediatric service of each hospital was included into the analysis.

RESULTS

Among the members, 143 physicians responded the survey, being anesthesiologists (83.2%), intensivists (11.9%), emergency medicine physicians (2.1%), and (2.8%) pain medicine practitioners. A straight blade was preferred by 115 participants (80.4%) in newborns, whereas in infants 86 (60.1%) indicated a curved blade and 55 (38.5%) a straight blade. Uncuffed tracheal tube were preferred by 115 participants (80.4%) in newborns, whereas 24 (16.8%) used cuffed tubes. Approximately 2/3 of the participants (89, 62.2%) reported not to use routinely a cuff manometer in their clinical practice, whereas 54 participants (37.8%) use it routinely in pediatric patients. Direct laryngoscopy for routine pediatric tracheal intubation was reported by 127 participants (88.8%), while 16 (11.2%) reported using videolaryngoscopes routinely. Interestingly, 39 (27.3%) had never performed neither videolaryngoscopy nor flexible bronchoscopy in children. These results were significantly less in hospitals with a dedicated pediatric anesthesiologist.

CONCLUSIONS

This survey on airway management in pediatric anesthesia revealed that the use of cuffed tubes and the routine monitoring of cuff pressure are rare. In addition, the rate of videolaryngoscopy or flexible optical intubation was low for expected difficult intubation. Our survey highlights the need for properly trained pediatric anesthesiologists working in-line with updated scientific evidence.

Effect of tracheal tube cuff inflation with alkalinized lidocaine versus air on hemodynamic responses during extubation and post-operative airway morbidities in children: prospective observational cohort study, Ethiopia

Background

Endotracheal tube with an inflated cuff was used to manage and maintain the airway during general anesthesia in children. When the lateral pressure exerted by an inflated Endotracheal tube cuff on tracheal mucosa exceeds capillary perfusion pressure, patients may complain of cough, sore throat, and hoarseness in the postoperative period. This study aimed to assess the effect of a tracheal tube cuff filled with alkalinized lidocaine versus air on hemodynamic parameter changes during extubation and post-operative airway morbidity in children.

Methods

Institutional based observational prospective cohort study was conducted among 56 elective children; aged 3–13 years, who underwent operation under general anesthesia with cuffed endotracheal intubation for greater than one hour by grouping into the air (group1) and alkalinized Lidocaine (group2) at Tikur Anbessa specialized Hospital. Hemodynamic parameters (Heart rate and Blood pressure) and other variables were measured starting from 5 min before extubation to 24th hours after extubation of the endotracheal tube. A Comparison of numerical variables between study group was done with an independent t-test. Data were expressed in terms of mean ± standard deviation. Categorical data were assessed by Chi-square tests.

Results

Postoperative Sore throat was lower in alkalinized lidocaine group compared to the air group. The mean heart rate at five minutes after extubation was significantly lower in alkalinized lidocaine group (107.29 ± 6.457 beat per minute (bpm)) compared to the air group (122.04 ± 8.809 bpm), with P ≤ 0.001. Systolic blood pressure was also significantly lower in alkalinized lidocaine group (99.64 ± 8.434 millimeters of mercury (mmHg)) compared to the air group (108.21 ± 11.902 mmHg), p = 0.016 at five minutes after extubation.

Conclusion

Alkalinized lidocaine inflated tracheal tubes have shown improved hemodynamic and laryngotracheal morbidities in children.

Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia Prevention in Pediatric Patients: Narrative Review

Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), one of the most common healthcare-associated infections in intensive care settings, is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. VAP is diagnosed in >10% of patients on mechanical ventilation, incidence rising with number of ventilator days. In recent decades, the pathophysiology of VAP, VAP risk factors and treatment have been extensively studied. In critically ill pediatric patients, mechanical issues such as insufficient tightness of the ventilator circuit (mainly due to historically based preference of uncuffed tubes) and excessive humidity in the circuit are both significant risk factors of VAP development. Protocol-based approaches to critically ill patients on mechanical ventilation, closed suctioning, upper body position, enteral feeding and selective gastric acid suppression medication have a beneficial effect on VAP incidence. In recent decades, cuffed tubes applied to the whole spectrum of critically ill pediatric patients (except neonates <2700 g of weight), together with cuff-oriented nursing care including proper cuff-pressure (<20 cm H2O) management and the use of specialized tracheal tubes with subglottic suction ports combined with close infraglottic tracheal suctioning, have been implemented. The aim of this review was to summarize the current evidence-based knowledge about the pathophysiology, risk factors, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of VAP in clinically oriented settings.

Plain Radiographic Analysis of Laryngeal Dimensions in Young Children: Normal versus Croup

(1) Background: Contrary to a tenet of the funnel-shaped pediatric larynx with the cricoid level being narrowest, recent studies show the glottis and subglottis as the narrowest levels. To locate the functionally narrowest level of the larynx, we reported normal laryngeal dimensions and their croup-related changes in young children. (2) Methods: We reviewed normal plain neck radiographs recorded for the evaluation of minor trauma or foreign bodies in 504 children aged ≤4 years who visited the emergency department from 2016 through 2021. Using computed tomography-based localization of the glottis, we radiographically defined the subglottis and cricoid. At these levels, we measured diameters and calculated cross-sectional areas (CSAs) on the radiographs. The values were compared to the equivalent values of a 1:1 age-matched population with croup. (3) Results: In the study population (n = 401), the narrowest diameter and CSA were observed in the glottis. In detail, the mean anteroposterior/transverse diameters were 9.8/3.4 mm at the glottis, 8.5/5.6 mm at the subglottis, and 7.4/6.8 mm at the cricoid (p < 0.001), respectively. In the same order, the mean CSAs were 26.5, 38.1, and 40.5 mm2 (p < 0.001). All dimensions were narrower in the croup population (p < 0.001). We found croup-related narrowing, namely reductions in the transverse diameter and CSA that were more severe closer to the glottis (p < 0.001), without differences per level in the anteroposterior diameter. (4) Conclusions: This study confirms the glottis as the narrowest level of the larynx in young children. In addition, level-based differences in croup-related narrowing suggest some point between the glottis and subglottis as the functionally narrowest level.

Choice of the correct size of endotracheal tube in pediatric patients

Selection and insertion of an endotracheal tube (ETT) of appropriate size for airway management during general anesthesia in pediatric patients is very important. A very small ETT increases the risk of inadequate ventilation, air leakage, and aspiration, whereas a very large ETT may cause serious complications including airway damage, post-intubation croup, and, in severe cases, subglottic stenosis. Although the pediatric larynx is conical, the narrowest part, the rima glottidis, is cylindrical in the anteroposterior dimension, regardless of development, and the cricoid ring is slightly elliptical. A cuffed ETT reduces the number of endotracheal intubation attempts, and if cuff pressure can be maintained within a safe range, the risk of airway damage may not be greater than that of an ETT without cuff. The age-based formula suggested by Cole (age/4 + 4) has long been used to select the appropriate ETT size in children. Because age-based formulas in children are not always accurate, various alternative methods for estimating the ETT size have been examined and suggested. Chest radiography, ultrasound, and a three-dimensional airway model can be used to determine the appropriate ETT size; however, there are several limitations.

Airway Management in Pediatric Patients: Cuff-Solved Problem?

Traditionally, uncuffed tubes were used in pediatric patients under 8 years in pursuit of reducing the risk of postextubation stridor. Although computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging studies confirmed that the subglottic area remains the narrowest part of pediatric airway, the use of uncuffed tubes failed to reduce the risk of subglottic swelling. Properly used cuffed tubes (correct size and correct cuff management) are currently recommended as the first option in emergency, anesthesiology and intensive care in all pediatric patients. Clinical practice particularly in the intensive care area remains variable. This review aims to analyze the current recommendation for airway management in children in emergency, anesthesiology and intensive care settings.

A Survey of Paediatric Rapid Sequence Induction in a Department of Anaesthesia

(1) Background: Rapid sequence induction (RSI) is carried out by anaesthetists to secure the airway promptly in patients who are at risk of aspirating gastric content during induction of anaesthesia. RSI requires variation in the paediatric population. We conducted a survey to investigate current practice of paediatric RSI by anaesthetists. (2) Methods: A descriptive, contextual, cross-sectional research design was followed. The study population consisted of all anaesthetists working in the Department of Anaesthesia at the University of the Witwatersrand. Data was collected in the form of a self-administered questionnaire. (3) Results: Of 138 questionnaires that were distributed, 126 were completed. Clinical indication for RSI was predominantly for appendicitis with peritonitis (115/124; 92.7%). Preoxygenation was performed by 95.1% of anaesthetists for children, 87% for infants and 89.4% for neonates. Cricoid pressure was used significantly more in children (56%) than in infants (20.8%) and neonates (10.3%) (p < 0.001). Rocuronium was the paralytic agent of choice in children (42.7%) and infants (38.2%), while cisatracurium was used most frequently in neonates (37.4%). Suxamethonium was used least in neonates. Cuffed ETTs were used most frequently for children (99.2%) and least for neonates (49.6%). Eighty-five percent of anaesthetists omitted cricoid pressure during RSI for pyloromyotomy, for which a controlled RSI was performed more by consultants and senior registrars (p < 0.01). A classic RSI was performed by 53.6% of anaesthetists for laparotomy for small bowel obstruction. Consultants and PMOs were more likely to intubate a child for forearm MUA who was starved for 6 h and received opioids (p < 0.05). Controlled RSI with cisatracurium was the technique of choice for Tenkhoff insertion in a child with renal failure. (4) Conclusions: RSI practice for paediatric patients varied widely among anaesthetists. This may be attributed to a combination of anaesthetic experience, training in paediatric anaesthesia, and patient specific factors, along with the individualised clinical scenario’s aspiration risk. A controlled RSI technique appears to be implemented more frequently by anaesthetists with increased experience.

Pediatric Microcuff Tube for Neurosurgical Procedures: A Boon or Bane?

Pediatric Microcuff endotracheal tubes have come into vogue in the last few years. It overcomes the problems faced with the uncuffed or conventional cuffed tubes used in the pediatric population. In addition, the more distal placement of the polyurethane cuffs in these tubes eliminates the risk of airway mucosal injury and hence postoperative stridor. This makes it an attractive option for neurosurgical patients where there is a high incidence of cranial nerve deficit, airway edema, and the requirement of prolonged postoperative ventilation. But due to this particular design, Murphy's eye is not incorporated in the tube, which can potentially hamper ventilation, especially when used for long duration surgery. With the help of our case report, we would like to warn the readers regarding this life-threatening complication that resulted in hypoxia in a 1-year-old child in the postoperative period.

Strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia, ventilator-associated events, and nonventilator hospital-acquired pneumonia in acute-care hospitals: 2022 Update

The purpose of this document is to highlight practical recommendations to assist acute care hospitals to prioritize and implement strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), ventilator-associated events (VAE), and non-ventilator hospital-acquired pneumonia (NV-HAP) in adults, children, and neonates. This document updates the Strategies to Prevent Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia in Acute Care Hospitals published in 2014. This expert guidance document is sponsored by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology (SHEA), and is the product of a collaborative effort led by SHEA, the Infectious Diseases Society of America, the American Hospital Association, the Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, and The Joint Commission, with major contributions from representatives of a number of organizations and societies with content expertise.

Use of cuffed endotracheal tubes in infants less than 5 kilograms: A retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Improved understanding of airway anatomy and refinement of equipment have led to the increased use of cuffed endotracheal tubes (ETTs) in infants and children. Despite expanded evidence on the potential advantages of cuffed ETTs in pediatric patients, there remains limited data on their use in infants less than 5 kilograms (kg). The current study retrospectively evaluates the perioperative use of cuffed ETTs in infants weighing 2-5 kg.

METHODS

This is a retrospective study from a tertiary care children's hospital involving a 3-year period. Data regarding anesthetic care, airway management, and postoperative course were retrospectively retrieved from the electronic medical record.

RESULTS

The study cohort included 1162 patients, 1086 of whom had their tracheas intubated with a cuffed ETT and 76 with an uncuffed ETT. Patients were divided into two groups for analysis: 2 to <3 kg and 3 to 5 kg. In both weight groups, cuffed ETTs resulted in a decreased need for more than one laryngoscopy and a change in ETT size with no increase in postoperative airway effects including stridor.

CONCLUSIONS

These data provide additional information regarding the efficacy and safety of cuffed ETTs in neonates and infants.

Cuffed versus uncuffed endotracheal tubes for neonates

BACKGROUND

Endotracheal intubation is a commonly performed procedure in neonates, the risks of which are well-described. Some endotracheal tubes (ETT) are equipped with a cuff that can be inflated after insertion of the ETT in the airway to limit leak or aspiration. Cuffed ETTs have been shown in larger children and adults to reduce gas leak around the ETT, ETT exchange, accidental extubation, and exposure of healthcare workers to anesthetic gas during surgery. With improved understanding of neonatal airway anatomy and the widespread use of cuffed ETTs by anesthesiologists, the use of cuffed tubes is increasing in neonates.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the benefits and harms of cuffed ETTs (inflated or non-inflated) compared to uncuffed ETTs for respiratory support in neonates.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched CENTRAL, PubMed, and CINAHL on 20 August 2021; we also searched trial registers and checked reference lists to identify additional studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-RCTs, and cluster-randomized trials comparing cuffed (inflated and non-inflated) versus uncuffed ETTs in newborns. We sought to compare 1. inflated, cuffed versus uncuffed ETT; 2. non-inflated, cuffed versus uncuffed ETT; and 3. inflated, cuffed versus non-inflated, cuffed ETT.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used the standard methods of Cochrane Neonatal. Two review authors independently assessed studies identified by the search strategy for inclusion, extracted data, and assessed risk of bias. We used the GRADE approach to assess the certainty of evidence.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified one eligible RCT for inclusion that compared the use of cuffed (inflated if ETT leak greater than 20% with cuff pressure 20 cm H₂O or less) versus uncuffed ETT. The author provided a spreadsheet with individual data. Among 76 infants in the original manuscript, 69 met the inclusion and exclusion criteria for this Cochrane Review. We found possible bias due to lack of blinding and other bias. We are very uncertain about frequency of postextubation stridor, because the confidence intervals (CI) of the risk ratio (RR) were very wide (RR 1.36, 95% CI 0.35 to 5.25; risk difference (RD) 0.03, -0.11 to 0.18; 1 study, 69 participants; very low-certainty evidence). No neonate was diagnosed with postextubation subglottic stenosis; however, endoscopy was not available to confirm the clinical diagnosis. We are very uncertain about reintubation for stridor or subglottic stenosis because the CIs of the RR were very wide (RR 0.27, 95% CI 0.01 to 6.49; RD -0.03, 95% CI -0.11 to 0.05; 1 study, 69 participants; very low-certainty evidence). No neonate had surgical intervention (e.g. endoscopic balloon dilation, cricoid split, tracheostomy) for stridor or subglottic stenosis (1 study, 69 participants). Neonates randomized to cuffed ETT may be less likely to have a reintubation for any reason (RR 0.06, 95% CI 0.01 to 0.45; RD -0.39, 95% CI -0.57 to -0.21; number needed to treat for an additional beneficial outcome 3, 95% CI 2 to 5; 1 study, 69 participants; very low-certainty evidence). We are very uncertain about accidental extubation because the CIs of the RR were wide (RR 0.82, 95% CI 0.12 to 5.46; RD -0.01, 95% CI -0.12 to 0.10; 1 study, 69 participants; very low-certainty evidence). We are very uncertain about all-cause mortality during initial hospitalization because the CIs of the RR were extremely wide (RR 2.46, 95% CI 0.10 to 58.39; RD 0.03, 95% CI -0.05 to 0.10; 1 study, 69 participants; very low-certainty evidence). There is one ongoing trial. We classified two studies as awaiting classification because outcome data were not reported separately for newborns and older infants.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Evidence for comparing cuffed versus uncuffed ETTs in neonates is limited by a small number of babies in a single RCT with possible bias. There is very low certainty evidence for all outcomes of this review. CIs of the estimate for postextubation stridor were wide. No neonate had clinical evidence for subglottic stenosis; however, endoscopy results were not available to assess the anatomy. Additional RCTs are necessary to evaluate the benefits and harms of cuffed ETTs (inflated and non-inflated) in the neonatal population. These studies must include neonates and be conducted both for short-term use (in the setting of the operating room) and chronic use (in the setting of chronic lung disease) of cuffed ETTs.

Incidence of Post-extubation Stridor in Infants With Cuffed vs. Uncuffed Endotracheal Tube: A Retrospective Cohort Analysis

BACKGROUND

Endotracheal intubation is a common procedure in Neonatal Intensive Care. While cuffed endotracheal tubes (ETT) are the standard of care in adults and children, their use in infants is controversial. The aim of this study was to compare the incidence of post-extubation stridor between uncuffed and cuffed ETTs in infants. We further evaluated the safety of cuffed ETTs in infants with a bodyweight between 2 and 3 kg and performed baseline analysis on development of subglottic stenosis.

METHODS

In this retrospective study, we screened all infants admitted to two NICUs of the Medical University of Vienna between 2012 and 2019.The study cohort was screened twice: In the first screening we selected all infants who underwent the first intubation when attaining a bodyweight >2 kg (but <6 kg) to analyze the incidence of post-extubation stridor and only considered the first intubation of each included infant. Post-extubation stridor was defined as the administration of either epinephrine aerosol or any corticosteroid within 6 h post-extubation. In the second screening we searched for all infants diagnosed with acquired severe subglottic stenosis during the study period regardless their bodyweight and numbers of intubations.

RESULTS

A total of 389 infants received at least one intubation during the study period. After excluding infants who underwent the first intubation below a bodyweight of 2 kg, 271 infants remained for final analysis with an average gestational age of 38.7 weeks at the time of intubation. Among those, 92 (33.9%) were intubated with a cuffed and 179 (66.1%) with an uncuffed ETT. Seven infants (2.6%) developed a clinically significant stridor: five of those were intubated with a cuffed and two with an uncuffed ETT (71.4 vs. 28.6%, p = 0.053). All of them had a bodyweight >3 kg at the time of intubation. Infants who developed subglottic stenosis were more often intubated with an uncuffed ETT.

CONCLUSION

In this study, no difference in the incidence of post-extubation stridor between cuffed and uncuffed ETTs in infants with a bodyweight from 2 to 6 kg could be found. The use of uncuffed ETTs does not exhibit higher risk for the acquired subglottic stenosis in this cohort.

Adjunct Devices for the Pediatric Difficult Airway: A Case Report

This is a case report of a pediatric patient with a difficult airway, in which several airway adjuncts were used simultaneously to successfully provide adequate oxygenation and ventilation during cardiac arrest. Difficult airways are low-incidence, high-risk emergencies in children, and airway adjuncts may be used infrequently, let alone in combination. Included in the discussion of this case are a description of each airway adjunct and a discussion of the process needed to incorporate airway adjuncts safely and effectively into patient care.

Comparison of the efficacy and safety of cuffed versus uncuffed endotracheal tubes for infants in the intensive care setting: a pilot, unblinded RCT

OBJECTIVE

To study effectiveness and safety of cuffed versus uncuffed endotracheal tubes (ETTs) in small infants in the intensive care unit (ICU).

DESIGN

Pilot RCT.

SETTING

Neonatal and paediatric ICUs of children's hospital in Western Australia.

PARTICIPANTS

Seventy-six infants ≥35 weeks gestation and infants <3 months of age, ≥3 kg.

INTERVENTIONS

Patients randomly assigned to Microcuff cuffed or Portex uncuffed ETT.

MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES

Primary outcome was achievement of optimal ETT leak in target range (10%-20%). Secondary outcomes included: reintubations, ventilatory parameters, ventilatory complications, postextubation complications and long-term follow-up.

RESULTS

Success rate (achievement of mean leak in the range 10%-20%) was 13/42 (30.9%) in the cuffed ETT group and 6/34 (17.6%) in uncuffed ETT group (OR=2.09; 95% CI (0.71 to 6.08); p=0.28). Mean percentage time within target leak range in cuffed ETT group 28% (IQR: 9-42) versus 15% (IQR: 0-28) in uncuffed ETT group (p=0.01). There were less reintubations to optimise size in cuffed ETT group 0/40 versus 10/36 (p<0.001). No differences were found in gaseous exchange, ventilator parameters or postextubation complications. There were fewer episodes of atelectasis in cuffed ETT group 0/42 versus 4/34 (p=0.03). No patient had been diagnosed with subglottic stenosis at long-term follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

There was no difference in the primary outcome, though percentage time spent in optimal leak range was significantly higher in cuffed ETT group. Cuffed ETTs reduced reintubations to optimise ETT size and episodes of atelectasis. Cuffed ETTs may be a feasible alternative to uncuffed ETTs in this group of patients.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ACTRN12615000081516.

Endotracheal tube cuff position in relation to the cricoid in children: A retrospective computed tomography-based analysis

Background:

The use of cuffed endotracheal tubes (ETT) has become the standard of care in pediatric practice. The rationale for the use of a cuffed ETT is to minimize pressure around the cricoid while providing an effective airway seal. However, safe care requires that the cuff lie distal to the cricoid ring following endotracheal intubation. The current study demonstrates the capability of computed tomography (CT) imaging in identifying the position of the cuff of the ETT in intubated patients.

Methods:

In this retrospective study, the ETT cuff position was examined on the sagittal plane images of neck and chest CT scans of 44 children. The position of the proximal and the distal aspect of the ETT cuff inside the trachea was recorded in relation to the vertebral levels. The vertebral levels were used to estimate the location of the cricoid ring and its relationship to the cuff.

Results:

The vertebrae were used as the primary landmarks to define the position of the cricoid and its relationship to the cuff of the ETT. Correlating vertebral levels with the cricoid for different age groups, the proximal (cephalad) edge of the ETT cuff was below the cricoid in 41 of 44 patients (93%). The ETT cuff was deep in 6 patients, below the 1^st thoracic vertebra, with 2 ETTs in the right mainstem bronchus.

Conclusion:

This is the first study demonstrating that the cuff of the ETT and its position in the trachea can be identified on CT imaging in children. The ETT cuff was below the level of the cricoid in the majority of patients irrespective of the patient's age as well as the size, make, and type of ETT.

Options for Intraoperative Repair of a Cut Pilot Balloon on the Endotracheal Tube

Severing of the pilot balloon of an endotracheal tube (ETT) results in cuff deflation and may lead to complications including inadequate patient ventilation, increased risk of aspiration and infection, and operating room air pollution with anesthetic gases. In situations where ETT exchange or reintubation may pose a significant risk to the patient, temporary repair of the severed cuff tubing can be helpful until it is safe to address the problem with replacing the ETT. Simple and effective repair methods can be achieved using readily available materials in the operating room, including intravenous cannulas, hypodermic syringes, and epidural clamp connectors. However, choosing which technique or method depends mainly on personal preference, equipment availability, and provider comfort and experience. We present a 12-year-old adolescent who presented for anesthetic care for extensive burn injury. During removal of the dressing around the head and face, the tubing of the pilot balloon of the ETT was inadvertently cut. Options for dealing with such problems are discussed, including techniques to allow for temporary repair and re-inflation of the deflated cuff.

Just Breathe: Tips and Highlights for Managing Pediatric Respiratory Distress and Failure

Anatomically, the airway is ever changing in size, anteroposterior alignment, and point of most narrow dimension. Special considerations regarding obesity, chronic and acute illness, underlying developmental abnormalities, and age can all affect preparation and intervention toward securing a definitive airway. Mechanical ventilation strategies should focus on limiting peak inspiratory pressures and optimizing lung protective tidal volumes. Emergency physicians should work toward minimizing risk of peri-intubation hypoxemia and arrest. With review of anatomic and physiologic principles in the setting of a practical approach toward evaluating and managing distress and failure, emergency physicians can successfully manage critical pediatric airway encounters.

Prediction of endotracheal tube size using a printed three-dimensional airway model in pediatric patients with congenital heart disease: a prospective, single-center, single-group study

Background

To determine the correct size of endotracheal tubes (ETTs) for endotracheal intubation of pediatric patients, new methods have been investigated. Although the three-dimensional (3D) printing technology has been successful in the field of surgery, there are not many studies in the field of anesthesia. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of a 3D airway model for prediction of the correct ETT size, and compare the results with a conventional age-based formula in pediatric patients.

Methods

Thirty-five pediatric patients under six years of age who were scheduled for congenital heart surgery were enrolled. In the pre-anesthetic period, the patient’s computed tomography (CT) images were converted to Standard Triangle Language (STL) files using the 3D conversion program. A Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) type 3D printer was used to print 3D airway models from the sub-glottis to the upper carina. ETT size was selected by inserting various sized cuffed-ETTs to a printed 3D airway model.

Results

The 3D method selected the correct ETT size in 21 out of 35 pediatric patients (60%), whereas the age-based formula selected the correct ETT size in 9 patients (26%).

Conclusions

Prediction of the correct size of ETTs using a printed 3D airway model demonstrated better results than the age-based formula. This suggests that the selection of ETT size using a printed 3D airway model may be feasible for helping minimize re-intubation attempts and complications in patients with congenital heart disease and/or those with an abnormal range of growth and development.

[Ventilation in Pediatric Anesthesia]

About nine percent of all anesthesia procedures per year are performed in children. The risk for complications in pediatric anesthesia is higher in comparison with adults. There are significant differences in anatomy, physiology and pharmacology between pediatric and adult patients. Respiratory complications and circulations dysregulation occur more often in children. The most important consideration in the safe practice of pediatric anesthesia is to ensure a patent airway. Appropriate intraoperative management of newborns and infants needs a senior anesthetist with good knowledge and clinical experience including the management of possible complications.

Length of the Cricoid and Trachea in Children: Predicting Intubation Depth to Prevent Subglottic Stenosis

OBJECTIVE

Define the length of the subglottis and trachea in children to predict a safe intubation depth.

METHODS

Patients <18 years undergoing rigid bronchoscopy from 2013 to 2020 were included. The carina and inferior borders of the cricoid and true vocal folds were marked on a bronchoscope and distances were measured. Patient age, weight, height, and chest height were recorded. Four styles of cuffed pediatric endotracheal tubes (ETT) were measured and potential positions of each cuff and tip were calculated within each trachea using five depth of intubation scenarios. Multivariate linear regression was performed to identify predictors of subglottic and tracheal length.

RESULTS

Measurements were obtained from 210 children (141 male, 69 female), mean (SD) age 3.21 (3.66) years. Patient height was the best predictor of subglottic length (R² : 0.418): Length_sg (mm) = 0.058 * height (cm) + 2.8, and tracheal length (R² : 0.733): Length_t (mm) = 0.485 * height (cm) + 21.3. None of the depth of intubation scenarios maintained a cuff-free subglottis for all ETT styles investigated. A formula for depth of intubation: Length_di (mm) = 0.06 * height (cm) + 8.8 found that no ETT cuffs would be in the subglottis and all tips would be above the carina.

CONCLUSION

Current strategies for determining appropriate depth of intubation pose a high risk of subglottic ETT cuff placement. Placing the inferior border of the vocal cords 0.06 * height (cm) + 8.8 from the superior border of the inflated ETT cuff may prevent subglottic cuff placement and endobronchial intubation.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

4 Laryngoscope, 2021.

Cuffed endotracheal tubes in neonates and infants of less than 3 kg body weight-A retrospective audit

BACKGROUND

Large prospective clinical studies have shown that modern cuffed pediatric tracheal tubes can be used safely, even in children weighing ≥3 kg. There is a growing interest in their use in children weighing <3 kg so that they, too, can benefit from the potential advantages, particularly the high probability of these tubes fitting into and sealing the pediatric airway at the first intubation attempt. This study aimed to find a cut-off body weight for procedures requiring a cuffed tracheal tube to seal the airway in children weighing <3 kg and to evaluate the frequency and predictive factors for the requirement to place a cuffed instead of an uncuffed tracheal tube.

METHODS

This study was a retrospective analysis of 269 children weighing 2000-2999 g, primarily intubated by pediatric anesthetists. Frequency of intubation with uncuffed Sheridan tubes versus cuffed Microcuff^® Pediatric Endotracheal Tube (PET) 3.0 mm ID was studied. Predictive variables were assessed by means of logistic regression analysis. The ROC curve for weight at intubation time and Youden index was calculated.

RESULTS

The 149 (55.4%) children were finally intubated with a cuffed tracheal tube. Logistic regression demonstrated that body weight at tracheal intubation and birth weight were the strongest predictors for the appropriateness of cuffed/uncuffed tracheal tubes. The threshold weight at tracheal intubation was 2700 g for a probability >50% of using a cuffed tracheal tube.

CONCLUSION

Half of the children weighing 2000-2999 g received a Microcuff^® PET 3.0 mm ID, especially those with a body weight above 2700 g. Because of the anatomical dimensions in patients with a body weight of 2000-2999 g, cuffed tracheal tubes with smaller outer diameters may be required to better fit their airways.

The effect of saline versus air for cuff inflation on the incidence of high intra-cuff pressure in paediatric MicroCuff® tracheal tubes: a randomised controlled trial

The use of cuffed tracheal tubes in paediatric anaesthesia is now common. The use of nitrous oxide in anaesthesia risks excessive tracheal tube cuff pressures, as nitrous oxide can diffuse into the cuff during the course of surgery. The aim of this single-centre, prospective, randomised controlled trial was to compare the effect of saline versus air for the inflation of tracheal tube cuffs on the incidence of excessive intra-operative cuff pressure in children undergoing balanced anaesthesia with nitrous oxide. Children (age ≤ 16 y) were randomly allocated to receive either saline (saline group) or air (air group) to inflate the cuff of their tracheal tube. The pressure in the tracheal tube cuff was measured during surgery and brought down to the initial inflation level if it breached a safe limit (25 cmH₂ O). Post-extubation adverse respiratory events were noted. Data from 48 patients (24 in each group), aged 4 months to 16 y, were analysed. The requirement for reduction in intra-cuff pressure occurred in 1/24 patients in the saline group, compared with 16/24 patients in the air group (p < 0.001). The incidence of extubation-related adverse events was similar in the saline and air groups (15/24 vs. 13/24, respectively; p = 0.770). The use of saline to inflate the cuff of paediatric cuffed tubes reduces the incidence of high intra-cuff pressures during anaesthesia. This may provide a pragmatic extra safety barrier to help reduce the incidence of excessive tracheal cuff pressure when nitrous oxide is used during paediatric anaesthesia.

Clinical Use of Preformed Microcuff® Pediatric Endotracheal Tubes in Japan

Preformed cuffed oral endotracheal tubes are widely used to intubate children undergoing oral surgery. To evaluate the efficacy and safety of oral Ring-Adair-Elwyn (RAE) Microcuff® pediatric endotracheal tubes, we retrospectively investigated the endotracheal tube exchange rate and associated complications in Japanese children younger than 2 years of age undergoing cheiloplasty or palatoplasty. The exchange rate was 3.5%, and although unplanned extubations occurred in 2 patients, no severe complications were observed. Our results suggest that oral RAE Microcuff® tubes are effective and safe for intubating Japanese children younger than 2 years of age, with a low tube exchange rate and minor complications.

Incidence of post-anesthetic respiratory complications in pediatrics. Observational, single-center study in Medellin, Colombia

Introduction: Post-anesthetic complications, particularly respiratory complications, continue to be a source of concern due to their high frequency, particularly in pediatrics. Objective: To describe the incidence of respiratory complications in the post-anesthesia care unit of an intermediate complexity center during a six-month period, and to explore the variables associated with major respiratory complications. Materials and Methods: Retrospective cohort study based on clinical record reviews. The records of the post-anesthesia care unit of an intermediate complexity pediatric institution located in Medellin, Colombia, were reviewed. This center uses a nursing-based care model that includes patient extubation in the post-anesthesia care unit. Results: The records of 1181 patients were analyzed. The cumulative incidences of major complications were bronchospasm 1.44%, laryngospasm 0.68% and respiratory depression 0.59%. There were no cases of cardiac arrest or acute pulmonary edema. A history of respiratory infection less than 15 days before the procedure, rhinitis and female sex were associated with major respiratory complications. Conclusions: A low frequency of respiratory complications was found during care provided by nursing staff trained in anesthesia recovery and pediatric airway in the post-anesthesia care unit.

Frequency of the requirement of inappropriate uncuffed tracheal tube size for pediatric patients: a retrospective observational analysis

BACKGROUND

The insertion of inappropriately sized uncuffed endotracheal tubes (ETTs) with a tight seal or presence of air leakage may be necessary in children. This study aimed to analyze the frequency of the requirement of inappropriately sized uncuffed ETT insertion, air leakage after the ETT was replaced with one of a larger size, and factors associated with air leakage after ETT replacement.

METHODS

Patients under 2 years of age who underwent oral surgery under general anesthesia with uncuffed ETTs between December 2013 and May 2015 were enrolled. The ETT size was selected at the discretion of the attending anesthesiologists. A leak test was performed after intubation. The ETT was replaced when considered necessary. Data regarding the leak pressure (P_Leak) and inspiratory and expiratory tidal volumes were extracted from anesthesia records. We considered a P_Leak of 10 < P_Leak ≤ 30 cmH₂O to be appropriate. The frequencies of the requirement of inappropriately sized ETTs, absence of leakage after ETT replacement, ETT size difference, and leak rate were calculated. A logistic regression was performed, with P_Leak, leak rate, and size difference included as explanatory variables and presence of leakage after replacement as the outcome variable.

RESULTS

Out of the 156 patients enrolled, 109 underwent ETT replacement, with the requirement of inappropriately sized ETTs being observed in 25 patients (23%). ETT replacement was performed in patients with P_Leak ≤ 10 cmH₂O; leakage was absent after replacement (P_Leak < 30 cmH₂O) in 52% of patients (25/48). In the multivariate logistic model, the leak rate before ETT replacement was significantly associated with the presence of leakage after replacement (p = 0.021).

CONCLUSIONS

Inappropriately sized ETTs were inserted in approximately 23% of the patients. The leak rate may be useful to guide ETT replacement.

Intubation Related Laryngeal Injuries in Pediatric Population

Introduction: Laryngeal intubation related lesions (LIRL) in pediatric patients cause extreme morbidity in both elective and emergency settings. It has a wide range of presentations from minor laryngeal edema to a life-threatening airway obstruction. We report here our units' experience with LIRL in neonates, infants, and small children. Material and Methods: This is a retrospective monocentric cohort study between January 2013 and April 2019. Results: Thirty-nine patients with intubation lesions were included in the study. We looked at the lesions type, characteristics, management, and outcome. Half the patients were premature and having comorbidities. Main LIRL were subglottic stenosis (31%), ulcers (26%), granulations (18%), retention cysts (18%), posterior glottic stenosis (13%), and vocal cords edema (5%). Unfavorable lesions causing airway stenosis were associated with an intubation duration of over 1 week and were an important factor in causing airway stenosis (p < 0.05). The endoscopic treatment performed for these lesions was lesion and anatomical site-specific. Tracheostomy was needed in five patients, and was avoided in another two. Seven patients (18%) received open surgery prior to their decannulation. Conclusions: LIRL management is challenging and stressful in the pediatric population and optimal treatment could avoid extreme morbidity in them. Intubation duration and associated comorbidities are important factors in deciding the severity of these lesions. Protocols to prevent the formation of these lesions are critical.