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Medlock-Lanier T, Clay KB, Roberts-Galbraith RH. Planarian LDB and SSDP proteins scaffold transcriptional complexes for regeneration and patterning. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.02.07.527523. [PMID: 36798167 PMCID: PMC9934679 DOI: 10.1101/2023.02.07.527523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Abstract
Sequence-specific transcription factors often function as components of large regulatory complexes. LIM-domain binding protein (LDB) and single-stranded DNA-binding protein (SSDP) function as core scaffolds of transcriptional complexes in animals and plants. Little is known about potential partners and functions for LDB/SSDP complexes in the context of tissue regeneration. In this work, we find that planarian LDB1 and SSDP2 promote tissue regeneration, with a particular function in mediolateral polarity reestablishment. We find that LDB1 and SSDP2 interact with one another and with characterized planarian LIM-HD proteins Arrowhead, Islet1, and Lhx1/5-1. SSDP2 and LDB1 also function with islet1 in polarity reestablishment and with lhx1/5-1 in serotonergic neuron maturation. Finally, we show new roles for LDB1 and SSDP2 in regulating gene expression in the planarian intestine and parenchyma; these functions may be LIM-HD-independent. Together, our work provides insight into LDB/SSDP complexes in a highly regenerative organism. Further, our work provides a strong starting point for identifying and characterizing potential binding partners of LDB1 and SSDP2 and for exploring roles for these proteins in diverse aspects of planarian physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kendall B Clay
- Neuroscience Program, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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2
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Singh N, Singh D, Modi D. LIM Homeodomain (LIM-HD) Genes and Their Co-Regulators in Developing Reproductive System and Disorders of Sex Development. Sex Dev 2021; 16:147-161. [PMID: 34518474 DOI: 10.1159/000518323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
LIM homeodomain (LIM-HD) family genes are transcription factors that play crucial roles in a variety of functions during embryonic development. The activities of the LIM-HD proteins are regulated by the co-regulators LIM only (LMO) and LIM domain-binding (LDB). In the mouse genome, there are 13 LIM-HD genes (Lhx1-Lhx9, Isl1-2, Lmx1a-1b), 4 Lmo genes (Lmo1-4), and 2 Ldb genes (Ldb1-2). Amongst these, Lhx1 is required for the development of the müllerian duct epithelium and the timing of the primordial germ cell migration. Lhx8 is necessary for oocyte differentiation and Lhx9 for somatic cell proliferation in the genital ridges and control of testosterone production in the Leydig cells. Lmo4 is involved in Sertoli cell differentiation. Mutations in LHX1 are associated with müllerian agenesis or Mayer-Rokitansky-Kuster-Hauser (MRKH) syndrome. LHX9 gene variants are reported in cases with disorders of sex development (DSD). Mutations in LHX3 and LHX4 are reported in patients with combined pituitary hormone deficiency having absent or delayed puberty. A transcript map of the Lhx, Lmo, and Ldb genes reveal that multiple LIM-HD genes and their co-regulators are expressed in a sexually dimorphic pattern in the developing mouse gonads. Unraveling the roles of LIM-HD genes during development will aid in our understanding of the causes of DSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neha Singh
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR-NIRRH), Mumbai, India
| | - Domdatt Singh
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR-NIRRH), Mumbai, India
| | - Deepak Modi
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR-NIRRH), Mumbai, India
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Kinare V, Iyer A, Padmanabhan H, Godbole G, Khan T, Khatri Z, Maheshwari U, Muralidharan B, Tole S. An evolutionarily conserved Lhx2-Ldb1 interaction regulates the acquisition of hippocampal cell fate and regional identity. Development 2020; 147:dev.187856. [PMID: 32994168 DOI: 10.1242/dev.187856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The protein co-factor Ldb1 regulates cell fate specification by interacting with LIM-homeodomain (LIM-HD) proteins in a tetrameric complex consisting of an LDB:LDB dimer that bridges two LIM-HD molecules, a mechanism first demonstrated in the Drosophila wing disc. Here, we demonstrate conservation of this interaction in the regulation of mammalian hippocampal development, which is profoundly defective upon loss of either Lhx2 or Ldb1 Electroporation of a chimeric construct that encodes the Lhx2-HD and Ldb1-DD (dimerization domain) in a single transcript cell-autonomously rescues a comprehensive range of hippocampal deficits in the mouse Ldb1 mutant, including the acquisition of field-specific molecular identity and the regulation of the neuron-glia cell fate switch. This demonstrates that the LHX:LDB complex is an evolutionarily conserved molecular regulatory device that controls complex aspects of regional cell identity in the developing brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veena Kinare
- Department of Life Sciences, Sophia College for Women, Mumbai 400026, India
| | - Archana Iyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai 400005, India
| | - Hari Padmanabhan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai 400005, India.,Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Geeta Godbole
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai 400005, India
| | - Tooba Khan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai 400005, India
| | - Zeba Khatri
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai 400005, India
| | - Upasana Maheshwari
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai 400005, India
| | - Bhavana Muralidharan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai 400005, India
| | - Shubha Tole
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai 400005, India
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Rodent Models of Developmental Ischemic Stroke for Translational Research: Strengths and Weaknesses. Neural Plast 2019; 2019:5089321. [PMID: 31093271 PMCID: PMC6476045 DOI: 10.1155/2019/5089321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebral ischemia can occur at any stage in life, but clinical consequences greatly differ depending on the developmental stage of the affected brain structures. Timing of the lesion occurrence seems to be critical, as it strongly interferes with neuronal circuit development and determines the way spontaneous plasticity takes place. Translational stroke research requires the use of animal models as they represent a reliable tool to understand the pathogenic mechanisms underlying the generation, progression, and pathological consequences of a stroke. Moreover, in vivo experiments are instrumental to investigate new therapeutic strategies and the best temporal window of intervention. Differently from adults, very few models of the human developmental stroke have been characterized, and most of them have been established in rodents. The models currently used provide a better understanding of the molecular factors involved in the effects of ischemia; however, they still hold many limitations due to matching developmental stages across different species and the complexity of the human disorder that hardly can be described by segregated variables. In this review, we summarize the key factors contributing to neonatal brain vulnerability to ischemic strokes and we provide an overview of the advantages and limitations of the currently available models to recapitulate different aspects of the human developmental stroke.
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LDB1 Is Required for the Early Development of the Dorsal Telencephalon and the Thalamus. eNeuro 2019; 6:eN-NWR-0356-18. [PMID: 30873428 PMCID: PMC6416242 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0356-18.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
LIM domain binding protein 1 (LDB1) is a protein cofactor that participates in several multiprotein complexes with transcription factors that regulate mouse forebrain development. Since Ldb1 null mutants display early embryonic lethality, we used a conditional knockout strategy to examine the role of LDB1 in early forebrain development using multiple Cre lines. Loss of Ldb1 from E8.75 using Foxg1Cre caused a disruption of midline boundary structures in the dorsal telencephalon. While this Cre line gave the expected pattern of recombination of the floxed Ldb1 locus, unexpectedly, standard Cre lines that act from embryonic day (E)10.5 (Emx1Cre) and E11.5 (NesCre) did not show efficient or complete recombination in the dorsal telencephalon by E12.5. Intriguingly, this effect was specific to the Ldb1 floxed allele, since three other lines including floxed Ai9 and mTmG reporters, and a floxed Lhx2 line, each displayed the expected spatial patterns of recombination. Furthermore, the incomplete recombination of the floxed Ldb1 locus using NesCre was limited to the dorsal telencephalon, while the ventral telencephalon and the diencephalon displayed the expected loss of Ldb1. This permitted us to examine the requirement for LDB1 in the development of the thalamus in a context wherein the cortex continued to express Ldb1. We report that the somatosensory VB nucleus is profoundly shrunken upon loss of LDB1. Our findings highlight the unusual nature of the Ldb1 locus in terms of recombination efficiency, and also report a novel role for LDB1 during the development of the thalamus.
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Xiao D, Jin K, Xiang M. Necessity and Sufficiency of Ldb1 in the Generation, Differentiation and Maintenance of Non-photoreceptor Cell Types During Retinal Development. Front Mol Neurosci 2018; 11:271. [PMID: 30127719 PMCID: PMC6087769 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
During mammalian retinal development, the multipotent progenitors differentiate into all classes of retinal cells under the delicate control of transcriptional factors. The deficiency of a transcription cofactor, the LIM-domain binding protein Ldb1, has been shown to cause proliferation and developmental defects in multiple tissues including cardiovascular, hematopoietic, and nervous systems; however, it remains unclear whether and how it regulates retinal development. By expression profiling, RNA in situ hybridization and immunostaining, here we show that Ldb1 is expressed in the progenitors during early retinal development, but later its expression gradually shifts to non-photoreceptor cell types including bipolar, amacrine, horizontal, ganglion, and Müller glial cells. Retina-specific ablation of Ldb1 in mice resulted in microphthalmia, optic nerve hypoplasia, retinal thinning and detachment, and profound vision impairment as determined by electroretinography. In the mutant retina, there was precocious differentiation of amacrine and horizontal cells, indicating a requirement of Ldb1 in maintaining the retinal progenitor pool. Additionally, all non-photoreceptor cell types were greatly reduced which appeared to be caused by a generation defect and/or retinal degeneration via excessive cell apoptosis. Furthermore, we showed that misexpressed Ldb1 was sufficient to promote the generation of bipolar, amacrine, horizontal, ganglion, and Müller glial cells at the expense of photoreceptors. Together, these results demonstrate that Ldb1 is not only necessary but also sufficient for the development and/or maintenance of non-photoreceptor cell types, and implicate that the pleiotropic functions of Ldb1 during retinal development are context-dependent and determined by its interaction with diverse LIM-HD (LIM-homeodomain) and LMO (LIM domain-only) binding protein partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongchang Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Kangxin Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Mengqing Xiang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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Jozwiak S, Becker A, Cepeda C, Engel J, Gnatkovsky V, Huberfeld G, Kaya M, Kobow K, Simonato M, Loeb JA. WONOEP appraisal: Development of epilepsy biomarkers-What we can learn from our patients? Epilepsia 2017; 58:951-961. [PMID: 28387933 PMCID: PMC5806696 DOI: 10.1111/epi.13728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Current medications for patients with epilepsy work in only two of three patients. For those medications that do work, they only suppress seizures. They treat the symptoms, but do not modify the underlying disease, forcing patients to take these drugs with significant side effects, often for the rest of their lives. A major limitation in our ability to advance new therapeutics that permanently prevent, reduce the frequency of, or cure epilepsy comes from a lack of understanding of the disease coupled with a lack of reliable biomarkers that can predict who has or who will get epilepsy. METHODS The main goal of this report is to present a number of approaches for identifying reliable biomarkers from observing patients with brain disorders that have a high probability of producing epilepsy. RESULTS A given biomarker, or more likely a profile of biomarkers, will have both a quantity and a time course during epileptogenesis that can be used to predict who will get the disease, to confirm epilepsy as a diagnosis, to identify coexisting pathologies, and to monitor the course of treatments. SIGNIFICANCE Additional studies in patients and animal models could identify common and clinically valuable biomarkers to successfully translate animal studies into new and effective clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergiusz Jozwiak
- Department of Child Neurology, Medical University of Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Child Neurology, The Children’s Memorial Health Institute, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Albert Becker
- Section for Translational Epilepsy Research, Department of Neuropathology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Bonn, Germany
| | - Carlos Cepeda
- IDDRC, Semel Institute for Neuroscience & Human Behavior, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jerome Engel
- Departments of Neurology, Neurobiology, and Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences and the Brain Research Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Vadym Gnatkovsky
- Unit of Epilepsy and Experimental Neurophysiology, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Gilles Huberfeld
- Sorbonne and UPMC University, AP-HP, Department of Neurophysiology, UPMC and La Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France
- INSERM U1129, Paris Descartes University, PRES Sorbonne Paris, Cité, Paris, CEA, France
| | - Mehmet Kaya
- Department of Physiology, Koc University School of Medicine, Rumelifeneri Yolu, Sariver, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Katja Kobow
- Department of Neuropathology, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Michele Simonato
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara and Division of Neuroscience, University Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Jeffrey A. Loeb
- Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation, The University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL
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8
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Hawley ZCE, Campos-Melo D, Droppelmann CA, Strong MJ. MotomiRs: miRNAs in Motor Neuron Function and Disease. Front Mol Neurosci 2017; 10:127. [PMID: 28522960 PMCID: PMC5415563 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2017.00127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
MiRNAs are key regulators of the mammalian transcriptome that have been increasingly linked to degenerative diseases of the motor neurons. Although many of the miRNAs currently incriminated as participants in the pathogenesis of these diseases are also important to the normal development and function of motor neurons, at present there is no knowledge of the complete miRNA profile of motor neurons. In this review, we examine the current understanding with respect to miRNAs that are specifically required for motor neuron development, function and viability, and provide evidence that these should be considered as a functional network of miRNAs which we have collectively termed MotomiRs. We will also summarize those MotomiRs currently known to be associated with both amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), and discuss their potential use as biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary C E Hawley
- Molecular Medicine Group, Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western UniversityLondon, ON, Canada
| | - Danae Campos-Melo
- Molecular Medicine Group, Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western UniversityLondon, ON, Canada
| | - Cristian A Droppelmann
- Molecular Medicine Group, Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western UniversityLondon, ON, Canada
| | - Michael J Strong
- Molecular Medicine Group, Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western UniversityLondon, ON, Canada.,Department of Pathology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western UniversityLondon, ON, Canada.,Department of Clinical Neurological Sciences, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western UniversityLondon, ON, Canada
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9
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Welniarz Q, Dusart I, Roze E. The corticospinal tract: Evolution, development, and human disorders. Dev Neurobiol 2016; 77:810-829. [PMID: 27706924 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Revised: 09/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The corticospinal tract (CST) plays a major role in cortical control of spinal cord activity. In particular, it is the principal motor pathway for voluntary movements. Here, we discuss: (i) the anatomic evolution and development of the CST across mammalian species, focusing on its role in motor functions; (ii) the molecular mechanisms regulating corticospinal tract formation and guidance during mouse development; and (iii) human disorders associated with abnormal CST development. A comparison of CST anatomy and development across mammalian species first highlights important similarities. In particular, most CST axons cross the anatomical midline at the junction between the brainstem and spinal cord, forming the pyramidal decussation. Reorganization of the pattern of CST projections to the spinal cord during evolution led to improved motor skills. Studies of the molecular mechanisms involved in CST formation and guidance in mice have identified several factors that act synergistically to ensure proper formation of the CST at each step of development. Human CST developmental disorders can result in a reduction of the CST, or in guidance defects associated with abnormal CST anatomy. These latter disorders result in altered midline crossing at the pyramidal decussation or in the spinal cord, but spare the rest of the CST. Careful appraisal of clinical manifestations associated with CST malformations highlights the critical role of the CST in the lateralization of motor control. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 77: 810-829, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Welniarz
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France.,Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, Neuroscience Paris Seine, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, F-75005, Paris, France
| | - Isabelle Dusart
- Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, Neuroscience Paris Seine, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, F-75005, Paris, France
| | - Emmanuel Roze
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France.,Département des Maladies du Système Nerveux, AP-HP, Hôpital de la Salpêtrière, Paris, France
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10
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Gueta K, David A, Cohen T, Menuchin-Lasowski Y, Nobel H, Narkis G, Li L, Love P, de Melo J, Blackshaw S, Westphal H, Ashery-Padan R. The stage-dependent roles of Ldb1 and functional redundancy with Ldb2 in mammalian retinogenesis. Development 2016; 143:4182-4192. [PMID: 27697904 DOI: 10.1242/dev.129734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The Lim domain-binding proteins are key co-factor proteins that assemble with LIM domains of the LMO/LIM-HD family to form functional complexes that regulate cell proliferation and differentiation. Using conditional mutagenesis and comparative phenotypic analysis, we analyze the function of Ldb1 and Ldb2 in mouse retinal development, and demonstrate overlapping and specific functions of both proteins. Ldb1 interacts with Lhx2 in the embryonic retina and both Ldb1 and Ldb2 play a key role in maintaining the pool of retinal progenitor cells. This is accomplished by controlling the expression of the Vsx2 and Rax, and components of the Notch and Hedgehog signaling pathways. Furthermore, the Ldb1/Ldb2-mediated complex is essential for generation of early-born photoreceptors through the regulation of Rax and Crx. Finally, we demonstrate functional redundancy between Ldb1 and Ldb2. Ldb1 can fully compensate the loss of Ldb2 during all phases of retinal development, whereas Ldb2 alone is sufficient to sustain activity of Lhx2 in both early- and late-stage RPCs and in Müller glia. By contrast, loss of Ldb1 disrupts activity of the LIM domain factors in neuronal precursors. An intricate regulatory network exists that is mediated by Ldb1 and Ldb2, and promotes RPC proliferation and multipotency; it also controls specification of mammalian retina cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keren Gueta
- Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Ahuvit David
- Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Tsadok Cohen
- Mammalian Genes and Development, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Yotam Menuchin-Lasowski
- Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Hila Nobel
- Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Ginat Narkis
- Mammalian Genes and Development, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - LiQi Li
- Program on Genomics of Differentiation, Eunice Kennedy Shriver, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Paul Love
- Program on Genomics of Differentiation, Eunice Kennedy Shriver, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jimmy de Melo
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Seth Blackshaw
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Heiner Westphal
- Mammalian Genes and Development, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Ruth Ashery-Padan
- Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
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