A genome-wide study on the perception of the odorants androstenone and galaxolide

Humans and the Olfactory Environment: A Case of Gene-Culture Coevolution?

As hunter-gatherers, humans used their sense of smell to identify plants and animals, to find their way within a foraging area, or to distinguish each other by gender, age, kinship, or social dominance. Because women gathered while men hunted, the sexes evolved different sensitivities to plant and animal odors. They also ended up emitting different odors. Male odors served to intimidate rival males or assert dominance. With the rise of farming and sedentism, humans no longer needed their sense of smell to find elusive food sources or to orient themselves within a large area. Odors now came from a narrower range of plants and animals. Meanwhile, body odor was removed through bathing to facilitate interactions in enclosed spaces. This new phenotype became the template for the evolution of a new genotype: less sensitivity to odors of wild plants and animals, lower emissions of male odors, and a more negative response to them. Further change came with the development of fragrances to reodorize the body and the home. This new olfactory environment coevolved with the ability to represent odors in the mind, notably for storage in memory, for vicarious re-experiencing, or for sharing with other people through speech and writing.

From musk to body odor: Decoding olfaction through genetic variation

The olfactory system combines input from multiple receptor types to represent odor information, but there are few explicit examples relating olfactory receptor (OR) activity patterns to odor perception. To uncover these relationships, we performed genome-wide scans on odor-perception phenotypes for ten odors in 1000 Han Chinese and validated results for six of these odors in an ethnically diverse population (n = 364). In both populations, consistent with previous studies, we replicated three previously reported associations (β-ionone/OR5A1, androstenone/OR7D4, cis-3-hexen-1-ol/OR2J3 LD-band), but not for odors containing aldehydes, suggesting that olfactory phenotype/genotype studies are robust across populations. Two novel associations between an OR and odor perception contribute to our understanding of olfactory coding. First, we found a SNP in OR51B2 that associated with trans-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid, a key component of human underarm odor. Second, we found two linked SNPs associated with the musk Galaxolide in a novel musk receptor, OR4D6, which is also the first human OR shown to drive specific anosmia to a musk compound. We noticed that SNPs detected for odor intensity were enriched with amino acid substitutions, implying functional changes of odor receptors. Furthermore, we also found that the derived alleles of the SNPs tend to be associated with reduced odor intensity, supporting the hypothesis that the primate olfactory gene repertoire has degenerated over time. This study provides information about coding for human body odor, and gives us insight into broader mechanisms of olfactory coding, such as how differential OR activation can converge on a similar percept.

The Role of Knockout Olfactory Receptor Genes in Odor Discrimination

To date, little is known about the role of olfactory receptor (OR) genes on smell performance. Thanks to the availability of whole-genome sequencing data of 802 samples, we identified 41 knockout (KO) OR genes (i.e., carriers of Loss of Function variants) and evaluated their effect on odor discrimination in 218 Italian individuals through recursive partitioning analysis. Furthermore, we checked the expression of these genes in human and mouse tissues using publicly available data and the presence of organ-related diseases in human KO (HKO) individuals for OR expressed in non-olfactory tissues (Fisher test). The recursive partitioning analysis showed that age and the high number (burden) of OR-KO genes impact the worsening of odor discrimination (p-value < 0.05). Human expression data showed that 33/41 OR genes are expressed in the olfactory system (OS) and 27 in other tissues. Sixty putative mouse homologs of the 41 humans ORs have been identified, 58 of which are expressed in the OS and 37 in other tissues. No association between OR-KO individuals and pathologies has been detected. In conclusion, our work highlights the role of the burden of OR-KO genes in worse odor discrimination.

[Modern studies of the role of the vomeronasal system in the perception of pheromones and their impact on social and sexual behavior]

The vomeronasal system (VNS) provides regulation of a wide range of autonomic and affective functions, behavioral reactions in response to the specific chemical stimuli pheromones secreted by mammals, including humans. The results of experimental studies confirming the existence of VNS and explaining the basic mechanisms of its functioning are presented. The results of studies of healthy volunteers, explaining the effect of pheromones on a number of functions of the human body, are considered.

Complex relationship between TAS2 receptor variations, bitterness perception, and alcohol consumption observed in a population of wine consumers

Our ability to taste bitterness affects our food choices and alcohol consumption. Alleles in the taste 2 receptor member TAS2R38 have been linked to the ability to perceive bitterness in bitter-tasting compounds and in many foods, and people with these bitterness sensitivity alleles have been shown to be less likely to consume alcohol, presumably because of alcohol's bitter taste. In a survey of 519 participants, almost all of whom regularly consumed alcohol, we observed that genetic variants in TAS2R38 were significantly associated with both increased alcohol consumption and the ability to perceive bitterness in several foods and a bitter chemical. In total, we assayed 39 variants in 25 genes that have been implicated in the genetics of taste perception, and no other variants predicted alcohol consumption. Perception of bitterness in broccoli and a preference for black coffee were also positively associated with alcohol consumption. As the consumption of alcohol is a social activity there may be incentive to appreciate its bitter aspects, and increased perception of bitterness could therefore be associated with consumption of some bitter beverages. As this study's respondents were predominantly frequent consumers of alcohol, these findings may be consistent with previous studies that have seen that increased experience in the consumption of wine is associated with an increased perception of PROP bitterness. Further work elucidating the complex relationship between the genetics of bitter perception and alcohol consumption will better describe these connections.

Anosmia-A Clinical Review

Anosmia and hyposmia, the inability or decreased ability to smell, is estimated to afflict 3-20% of the population. Risk of olfactory dysfunction increases with old age and may also result from chronic sinonasal diseases, severe head trauma, and upper respiratory infections, or neurodegenerative diseases. These disorders impair the ability to sense warning odors in foods and the environment, as well as hinder the quality of life related to social interactions, eating, and feelings of well-being. This article reports and extends on a clinical update commencing at the 2016 Association for Chemoreception Sciences annual meeting. Included were reports from: a patient perspective on losing the sense of smell with information on Fifth Sense, a nonprofit advocacy organization for patients with olfactory disorders; an otolaryngologist's review of clinical evaluation, diagnosis, and management/treatment of anosmia; and researchers' review of recent advances in potential anosmia treatments from fundamental science, in animal, cellular, or genetic models. As limited evidence-based treatments exist for anosmia, dissemination of information on anosmia-related health risks is needed. This could include feasible and useful screening measures for olfactory dysfunction, appropriate clinical evaluation, and patient counseling to avoid harm as well as manage health and quality of life with anosmia.

A missense polymorphism in the putative pheromone receptor gene VN1R1 is associated with sociosexual behavior

Pheromones regulate social and reproductive behavior in most mammalian species. These effects are mediated by the vomeronasal and main olfactory systems. Effects of putative pheromones on human neuroendocrine activity, brain activity and attractiveness ratings suggest that humans may communicate via similar chemosignaling. Here we studied two samples of younger and older individuals, respectively, with respect to one nonsynonymous polymorphism in the gene encoding the human vomeronasal type-1 receptor 1, VN1R1, and one nonsynonymous polymorphism in the gene encoding the olfactory receptor OR7D4. Participants in both samples had self-reported their sociosexual behavior using the sociosexual orientation inventory, including questions regarding lifetime number of one-night stands, number of partners last year and expected number of partners the coming 5 years. In women, there was a significant association between the VN1R1 polymorphism and sociosexual behavior in both samples, driven specifically by the question regarding one-night stands. Our results support the hypothesis that human social interaction is modulated by communication via chemosignaling.

Pleasantness, familiarity, and identification of spice odors are interrelated and enhanced by consumption of herbs and food neophilia

The primary dimension of odor is pleasantness, which is associated with a multitude of factors. We investigated how the pleasantness, familiarity, and identification of spice odors were associated with each other and with the use of the respective spice, overall use of herbs, and level of food neophobia. A total of 126 adults (93 women, 33 men; age 25-61 years, mean 39 years) rated the odors from 12 spices (oregano, anise, rosemary, mint, caraway, sage, thyme, cinnamon, fennel, marjoram, garlic, and clove) for pleasantness and familiarity, and completed a multiple-choice odor identification. Data on the use of specific spices, overall use of herbs, and Food Neophobia Scale score were collected using an online questionnaire. Familiar odors were mostly rated as pleasant (except garlic), whereas unfamiliar odors were rated as neutral (r = 0.63). We observed consistent and often significant trends that suggested the odor pleasantness and familiarity were positively associated with the correct odor identification, consumption of the respective spice, overall use of herbs, and food neophilia. Our results suggest that knowledge acquisition through repetitive exposure to spice odor with active attention may gradually increase the odor pleasantness within the framework set by the chemical characteristics of the aroma compound.

Global Survey of Variation in a Human Olfactory Receptor Gene Reveals Signatures of Non-Neutral Evolution

Allelic variation at 4 loci in the human olfactory receptor gene OR7D4 is associated with perceptual variation in the sex steroid-derived odorants, androstenone, and androstadienone. Androstadienone has been linked with chemosensory identification whereas androstenone makes pork from uncastrated pigs distasteful ("boar taint"). In a sample of 2224 individuals from 43 populations, we identified 45 OR7D4 single nucleotide polymorphisms. Coalescent modeling of frequency-site-spectrum-based statistics identified significant deviation from neutrality in human OR7D4; individual populations with statistically significant deviations from neutrality include Gujarati, Beijing Han, Great Britain, Iberia, and Puerto Rico. Analysis of molecular variation values indicated statistically significant population differentiation driven mainly by the 4 alleles associated with androstenone perception variation; however, fixation values were low suggesting that genetic structure may not have played a strong role in creating these group divisions. We also studied OR7D4 in the genomes of extinct members of the human lineage: Altai Neandertal and Denisovan. No variants were identified in Altai but 2 were in Denisova, one of which is shared by modern humans and one of which is novel. A functional test of modern human and a synthesized mutant Denisova OR7D4 indicated no statistically significant difference in responses to androstenone between the 2 species. Our results suggest non-neutral evolution for an olfactory receptor gene.

Mammalian odorant receptors: functional evolution and variation

In mammals, the perception of smell starts with the activation of odorant receptors (ORs) by volatile molecules in the environment. The mammalian OR repertoire has been subject to rapid evolution, and is highly diverse within the human population. Recent advances in the functional expression and ligand identification of ORs allow for functional analysis of OR evolution, and reveal that changes in OR protein sequences translate into high degrees of functional variations. Moreover, in several cases the functional variation of a single OR affects the perception of its cognate odor ligand, providing clues as to how an odor is coded at the receptor level.

Determinants of exposure to fragranced product chemical mixtures in a sample of twins

Fragranced product chemical mixtures may be relevant for environmental health, but little is known about exposure. We analyzed results from an olfactory challenge with the synthetic musk fragrance 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethyl-cyclopento-γ-2-benzopyran (HHCB), and a questionnaire about attitudes toward chemical safety and use of fragranced products, in a sample of 140 white and 17 black twin pairs attending a festival in Ohio. Data for each product were analyzed using robust ordered logistic regressions with random intercepts for “twin pair” and “sharing address with twin”, and fixed effects for sex, age, education, and “ever being bothered by fragrances”. Due to the small number of black participants, models were restricted to white participants except when examining racial differences. Overall patterns of association were summarized across product-types through random-effects meta-analysis. Principal components analysis was used to summarize clustering of product use. The dominant axis of variability in fragranced product use was “more vs. less”, followed by a distinction between household cleaning products and personal care products. Overall, males used fragranced products less frequently than females (adjusted proportionate odds ratio 0.55, 95% confidence interval 0.33, 0.93). This disparity was driven by personal care products (0.42, 95% CI: 0.19, 0.96), rather than household cleaning products (0.79, 95% CI: 0.49, 1.25) and was particularly evident for body lotion (0.12, 95% CI: 0.05, 0.27). Overall usage differed by age (0.64, 95% CI: 0.43, 0.95) but only hand soap and shampoo products differed significantly. “Ever being bothered by fragrance” had no overall association (0.92, 95% CI: 0.65, 1.30) but was associated with laundry detergent use (0.46, 95% CI: 0.23, 0.93). Similarly, black vs. white differences on average were not significant (1.34, 95% CI: 0.55, 3.28) but there were apparent differences in use of shampoo (0.01, 95% CI: 0.00, 0.69), body lotion (4.67, 95% CI: 1.18, 18.47), and perfume (6.22, 95% CI:1.08, 35.89). There was no overall association with thinking about product risks (0.90, 95% CI: 0.79, 1.02), nor with inability to smell HHCB (0.84, 95% CI: 0.63, 1.12). Exposure to fragranced products may differ demographically. The relevance for health disparities should be studied.

Genetic basis of olfactory cognition: extremely high level of DNA sequence polymorphism in promoter regions of the human olfactory receptor genes revealed using the 1000 Genomes Project dataset

The molecular mechanism of olfactory cognition is very complicated. Olfactory cognition is initiated by olfactory receptor proteins (odorant receptors), which are activated by olfactory stimuli (ligands). Olfactory receptors are the initial player in the signal transduction cascade producing a nerve impulse, which is transmitted to the brain. The sensitivity to a particular ligand depends on the expression level of multiple proteins involved in the process of olfactory cognition: olfactory receptor proteins, proteins that participate in signal transduction cascade, etc. The expression level of each gene is controlled by its regulatory regions, and especially, by the promoter [a region of DNA about 100–1000 base pairs long located upstream of the transcription start site (TSS)]. We analyzed single nucleotide polymorphisms using human whole-genome data from the 1000 Genomes Project and revealed an extremely high level of single nucleotide polymorphisms in promoter regions of olfactory receptor genes and HLA genes. We hypothesized that the high level of polymorphisms in olfactory receptor promoters was responsible for the diversity in regulatory mechanisms controlling the expression levels of olfactory receptor proteins. Such diversity of regulatory mechanisms may cause the great variability of olfactory cognition of numerous environmental olfactory stimuli perceived by human beings (air pollutants, human body odors, odors in culinary etc.). In turn, this variability may provide a wide range of emotional and behavioral reactions related to the vast variety of olfactory stimuli.

Spices: the savory and beneficial science of pungency

Spicy food does not only provide an important hedonic input in daily life, but has also been anedoctically associated to beneficial effects on our health. In this context, the discovery of chemesthetic trigeminal receptors and their spicy ligands has provided the mechanistic basis and the pharmacological means to investigate this enticing possibility. This review discusses in molecular terms the connection between the neurophysiology of pungent spices and the "systemic" effects associated to their trigeminality. It commences with a cultural and historical overview on the Western fascination for spices, and, after analysing in detail the mechanisms underlying the trigeminality of food, the main dietary players from the transient receptor potential (TRP) family of cation channels are introduced, also discussing the "alien" distribution of taste receptors outside the oro-pharingeal cavity. The modulation of TRPV1 and TRPA1 by spices is next described, discussing how spicy sensations can be turned into hedonic pungency, and analyzing the mechanistic bases for the health benefits that have been associated to the consumption of spices. These include, in addition to a beneficial modulation of gastro-intestinal and cardio-vascular function, slimming, the optimization of skeletal muscle performance, the reduction of chronic inflammation, and the prevention of metabolic syndrome and diabetes. We conclude by reviewing the role of electrophilic spice constituents on cancer prevention in the light of their action on pro-inflammatory and pro-cancerogenic nuclear factors like NFκB, and on their interaction with the electrophile sensor protein Keap1 and the ensuing Nrf2-mediated transcriptional activity. Spicy compounds have a complex polypharmacology, and just like any other bioactive agent, show a balance of beneficial and bad actions. However, at least for moderate consumption, the balance seems definitely in favour of the positive side, suggesting that a spicy diet, a caveman-era technology, could be seriously considered in addition to caloric control and exercise as a measurement to prevent and control many chronic diseases associate to malnutrition from a Western diet.

An olfactory demography of a diverse metropolitan population

Background

Human perception of the odour environment is highly variable. People vary both in their general olfactory acuity as well as in if and how they perceive specific odours. In recent years, it has been shown that genetic differences contribute to variability in both general olfactory acuity and the perception of specific odours. Odour perception also depends on other factors such as age and gender. Here we investigate the influence of these factors on both general olfactory acuity and on the perception of 66 structurally and perceptually different odours in a diverse subject population.

Results

We carried out a large human olfactory psychophysics study of 391 adult subjects in metropolitan New York City, an ethnically and culturally diverse North American metropolis. 210 of the subjects were women and the median age was 34.6 years (range 19–75). We recorded ~2,300 data points per subject to obtain a comprehensive perceptual phenotype, comprising multiple perceptual measures of 66 diverse odours. We show that general olfactory acuity correlates with gender, age, race, smoking habits, and body type. Young, female, non-smoking subjects had the highest average olfactory acuity. Deviations from normal body type in either direction were associated with decreased olfactory acuity. Beyond these factors we also show that, surprisingly, there are many odour-specific influences of race, age, and gender on olfactory perception. We show over 100 instances in which the intensity or pleasantness perception of an odour is significantly different between two demographic groups.

Conclusions

These data provide a comprehensive snapshot of the olfactory sense of a diverse population. Olfactory acuity in the population is most strongly influenced by age, followed by gender. We also show a large number of diverse correlations between demographic factors and the perception of individual odours that may reflect genetic differences as well as different prior experiences with these odours between demographic groups.

Genetic analysis of chemosensory traits in human twins

We explored genetic influences on the perception of taste and smell stimuli. Adult twins rated the chemosensory aspects of water, sucrose, sodium chloride, citric acid, ethanol, quinine hydrochloride, phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), potassium chloride, calcium chloride, cinnamon, androstenone, Galaxolide™, cilantro, and basil. For most traits, individual differences were stable over time and some traits were heritable (h(2) from 0.41 to 0.71). Subjects were genotyped for 44 single nucleotide polymorphisms within and near genes related to taste and smell. The results of these association analyses confirmed previous genotype-phenotype results for PTC, quinine, and androstenone. New associations were detected for ratings of basil and a bitter taste receptor gene, TAS2R60, and between cilantro and variants in three genes (TRPA1, GNAT3, and TAS2R50). The flavor of ethanol was related to variation within an olfactory receptor gene (OR7D4) and a gene encoding a subunit of the epithelial sodium channel (SCNN1D). Our study demonstrates that person-to-person differences in the taste and smell perception of simple foods and drinks are partially accounted for by genetic variation within chemosensory pathways.

Personal receptor repertoires: olfaction as a model

Background

Information on nucleotide diversity along completely sequenced human genomes has increased tremendously over the last few years. This makes it possible to reassess the diversity status of distinct receptor proteins in different human individuals. To this end, we focused on the complete inventory of human olfactory receptor coding regions as a model for personal receptor repertoires.

Results

By performing data-mining from public and private sources we scored genetic variations in 413 intact OR loci, for which one or more individuals had an intact open reading frame. Using 1000 Genomes Project haplotypes, we identified a total of 4069 full-length polypeptide variants encoded by these OR loci, average of ~10 per locus, constituting a lower limit for the effective human OR repertoire. Each individual is found to harbor as many as 600 OR allelic variants, ~50% higher than the locus count. Because OR neuronal expression is allelically excluded, this has direct effect on smell perception diversity of the species. We further identified 244 OR segregating pseudogenes (SPGs), loci showing both intact and pseudogene forms in the population, twenty-six of which are annotatively “resurrected” from a pseudogene status in the reference genome. Using a custom SNP microarray we validated 150 SPGs in a cohort of 468 individuals, with every individual genome averaging 36 disrupted sequence variations, 15 in homozygote form. Finally, we generated a multi-source compendium of 63 OR loci harboring deletion Copy Number Variations (CNVs). Our combined data suggest that 271 of the 413 intact OR loci (66%) are affected by nonfunctional SNPs/indels and/or CNVs.

Conclusions

These results portray a case of unusually high genetic diversity, and suggest that individual humans have a highly personalized inventory of functional olfactory receptors, a conclusion that might apply to other receptor multigene families.