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Carullo N, Fabiano G, D'Agostino M, Zicarelli MT, Musolino M, Presta P, Michael A, Andreucci M, Bolignano D, Coppolino G. New Insights on the Role of Marinobufagenin from Bench to Bedside in Cardiovascular and Kidney Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11186. [PMID: 37446363 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241311186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Marinobufagenin (MBG) is a member of the bufadienolide family of compounds, which are natural cardiac glycosides found in a variety of animal species, including man, which have different physiological and biochemical functions but have a common action on the inhibition of the adenosine triphosphatase sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+-ATPase). MBG acts as an endogenous cardiotonic steroid, and in the last decade, its role as a pathogenic factor in various human diseases has emerged. In this paper, we have collated major evidence regarding the biological characteristics and functions of MBG and its implications in human pathology. This review focused on MBG involvement in chronic kidney disease, including end-stage renal disease, cardiovascular diseases, sex and gender medicine, and its actions on the nervous and immune systems. The role of MBG in pathogenesis and the development of a wide range of pathological conditions indicate that this endogenous peptide could be used in the future as a diagnostic biomarker and/or therapeutic target, opening important avenues of scientific research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazareno Carullo
- Renal Unit, "Magna Graecia" University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Fabiano
- Renal Unit, "Magna Graecia" University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Mario D'Agostino
- Renal Unit, "Magna Graecia" University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | | | - Michela Musolino
- Renal Unit, "Magna Graecia" University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Pierangela Presta
- Renal Unit, "Magna Graecia" University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Ashour Michael
- Renal Unit, "Magna Graecia" University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Michele Andreucci
- Renal Unit, "Magna Graecia" University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Davide Bolignano
- Renal Unit, "Magna Graecia" University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Coppolino
- Renal Unit, "Magna Graecia" University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
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Lamichhane S, Mohammed CJ, Haller ST, Kennedy DJ, Isailovic D. Quantification of Cardiotonic Steroids Potentially Regulated by Paraoxonase 3 in a Rat Model of Chronic Kidney Disease Using UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232113565. [PMID: 36362352 PMCID: PMC9654389 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232113565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Endogenous cardiotonic steroids (CTSs), such as telocinobufagin (TCB) and marinobufagin (MBG) contain a lactone moiety critical to their binding and signaling through the Na+/K+-ATPase. Their concentrations elevate in response to sodium intake and under volume-expanded conditions. Paraoxonase 3 (PON3) is an enzyme that can hydrolyze lactone substrates. Here, we examine the role of PON3 in regulating CTS levels in a rat model of chronic kidney diseases (CKD). TCB and MBG were extracted from rat urine samples, and the analyses were carried out using ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography−Orbitrap-mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS). Ten-week-old Dahl salt-sensitive wild type (SS-WT) and Dahl salt-sensitive PON3 knockout (SS-PON3 KO) rats were maintained on a high-salt diet (8% NaCl) for 8 weeks to initiate salt-sensitive hypertensive renal disease characteristic of this model. CTS extraction recovery from urine >80% was achieved. For animals maintained on a normal chow diet, the baseline amount of TCB excreted in 24 h urine of SS-PON3 KO rats (6.08 ± 1.47 ng/24 h; or 15.09 ± 3.25 pmol) was significantly higher than for SS-WT rats (1.48 ± 0.69 ng/24 h; or 3.67 ± 1.54 pmol, p < 0.05). Similarly, for the same animals, the amount of excreted MBG was higher in the urine of SS-PON3 KO rats (4.74 ± 1.30 ng/24 h versus 1.03 ± 0.25 ng/24 h in SS-WT; or 11.83 ± 2.91 pmol versus 2.57 ± 0.56 pmol in SS-WT, p < 0.05). For animals on a high-salt diet, the SS-PON3 KO rats had significantly increased levels of TCB (714.52 ± 79.46 ng/24 h; or 1774.85 ± 175.55 pmol) compared to SS-WT control (343.84 ± 157.54 ng/24 h; or 854.09 ± 350.02 pmol, p < 0.05), and comparatively higher levels of MBG were measured for SS-PON3 KO (225.55 ± 82.61 ng/24 h; or 563.19 ± 184.5 pmol) versus SS-WT (157.56 ± 85.53 ng/24 h; or 393.43 ± 191.01 pmol, p > 0.05) rats. These findings suggest that the presence and absence of PON3 dramatically affect the level of endogenous CTSs, indicating its potential role in CTS regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabitri Lamichhane
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Chrysan J. Mohammed
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Steven T. Haller
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - David J. Kennedy
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
- Correspondence: (D.J.K.); (D.I.); Tel.: +1+419-383-6822 (D.J.K.); +1+419-530-5523 (D.I.)
| | - Dragan Isailovic
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
- Correspondence: (D.J.K.); (D.I.); Tel.: +1+419-383-6822 (D.J.K.); +1+419-530-5523 (D.I.)
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Ren W, Luo Z, Pan F, Liu J, Sun Q, Luo G, Wang R, Zhao H, Bian B, Xiao X, Pu Q, Yang S, Yu G. Integrated network pharmacology and molecular docking approaches to reveal the synergistic mechanism of multiple components in Venenum Bufonis for ameliorating heart failure. PeerJ 2020; 8:e10107. [PMID: 33194384 PMCID: PMC7605218 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Venenum Bufonis (VB), also called Chan Su in China, has been extensively used as a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for treating heart failure (HF) since ancient time. However, the active components and the potential anti-HF mechanism of VB remain unclear. In the current study, the major absorbed components and metabolites of VB after oral administration in rats were first collected from literatures. A total of 17 prototypes and 25 metabolites were gathered. Next, a feasible network-based pharmacological approach was developed and employed to explore the therapeutic mechanism of VB on HF based on the collected constituents. In total, 158 main targets were screened out and considered as effective players in ameliorating HF. Then, the VB components-main HF putative targets-main pathways network was established, clarifying the underlying biological process of VB on HF. More importantly, the main hubs were found to be highly enriched in adrenergic signalling in cardio-myocytes. After verified by molecular docking studies, four key targets (ATP1A1, GNAS, MAPK1 and PRKCA) and three potential active leading compounds (bufotalin, cinobufaginol and 19-oxo-bufalin) were identified, which may play critical roles in cardiac muscle contraction. This study demonstrated that the integrated strategy based on network pharmacology and molecular docking was helpful to uncover the synergistic mechanism of multiple constituents in TCM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Ren
- National Traditional Chinese Medicine Clinical Research Base, Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Zhiqiang Luo
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Fulu Pan
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Jiali Liu
- National Traditional Chinese Medicine Clinical Research Base, Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Qin Sun
- National Traditional Chinese Medicine Clinical Research Base, Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Gang Luo
- National Traditional Chinese Medicine Clinical Research Base, Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Raoqiong Wang
- National Traditional Chinese Medicine Clinical Research Base, Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Haiyu Zhao
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Baolin Bian
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao Xiao
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Living Biosystems, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qingrong Pu
- National Traditional Chinese Medicine Clinical Research Base, Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Sijin Yang
- National Traditional Chinese Medicine Clinical Research Base, Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Guohua Yu
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
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Wei WL, Hou JJ, Wang X, Yu Y, Li HJ, Li ZW, Feng ZJ, Qu H, Wu WY, Guo DA. Venenum bufonis: An overview of its traditional use, natural product chemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and toxicology. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2019; 237:215-235. [PMID: 30905791 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2019.03.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2018] [Revised: 03/16/2019] [Accepted: 03/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE The animal medicine of Venenum Bufonis (VB), a product of the secretions of Bufo gargarizans Cantor or B. melanostictus Schneider, has long been used as a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for the treatment of sunstroke and faint, acute filthy disease - abdominal pain or vomiting and diarrhea, etc. AIM OF THE REVIEW: This review is aimed at providing the comprehensive and up-to-date information of VB as regards its ethnopharmacological uses, constituents and their metabolism, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and toxicology, all of which could be used as fundamental data for future research as well as development of new drugs. MATERIALS AND METHODS The information and data about the studies of VB were collected from scientific journals, material medica, historical documents, library, and electronic databases (PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Researchgate, Web of Science and CNKI). RESULTS To date, about 142 bufadienolides and 16 indole alkaloids have been isolated from VB in total. The extract and isolated compounds showed a wide range of in vitro and in vivo pharmacologic effects, such as cardiotonic, anti-tumor, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, anesthetic and antimicrobial activities. Especially, bufadienolides have been extensively studied due to its powerful anti-tumor activities against various cancer cells. Furthermore, their metabolites and metabolic pathways were concluded in detail, and the main metabolic pathways of bufadienolides were hydroxylation, 3-isomerization, 3-keto, 16-hydrolyzation, 3-O-sulfate and 3-O-glucuronide. CONCLUSIONS Although VB possesses significant anti-tumor effect against various cancer cell lines, the development of new drugs still remains to be a challenge due to its pharmacodynamic effects in vivo, druggability and toxicology. The main problem lies in its side effects in vivo, poor bioavailability, fast metabolism, cardiotoxicity and neurovirulence. Besides, studies on its metabolism and toxicology in vitro and in vivo, as well as clinical trials should be further conducted for the new drug development and the establishment of optimal dosage of consumption of its administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Long Wei
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Jin-Jun Hou
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Xia Wang
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Yang Yu
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Hao-Jv Li
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhen-Wei Li
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Zi-Jin Feng
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Hua Qu
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Wan-Ying Wu
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, China.
| | - De-An Guo
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, China.
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Lenaerts C, Wells M, Hambÿe S, Blankert B. Marinobufagenin extraction from Rhinella marina toad glands: Alternative approaches for a systematized strategy. J Sep Sci 2019; 42:1384-1392. [PMID: 30667156 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201800879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2018] [Revised: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Marinobufagenin is a bufadienolide compound detected mainly in skin and parotoid gland secretions of Rhinella marina (L.) toad. Bufadienolides regulate the Na+ /K+ -ATPase pump by inhibiting the cardiotonic steroid dependent-site and act as cardiac inotropes with vasoconstrictive properties. Marinobufagenin and other bufadienolides, such as telocinobufagin and bufalin, are thought to be found endogenously in mammals in salt-sensitive hypertensive states such as essential hypertension, congestive heart-failure, and preeclampsia. The role of marinobufagenin as antimicrobial agent and its cytotoxic potential have also been recognized. The particular interest around marinobufagenin prompts us to consider the Rhinella marina toad venom as a possible source for molecules with pharmacological and/or diagnostic potential. In this article, two different approaches of extraction and purification of marinobufagenin from Rhinella marina (L.) venom are studied: (i) Preparative thin-layer chromatography combined to mass spectrometry and/or ultraviolet detection and (ii) solid-phase extraction coupled with fractionation on high-performance liquid chromatography. Different chromatographic conditions are tested for each approach. The solid-phase extraction combined with high-performance liquid chromatography fractionation approach was preferred as it offered a greater yield, was less time-consuming and allowed us to selectively isolate marinobufagenin. Both protocols aim to provide efficient and convenient methods for toad venom extraction, based on an easily automatable and systematized strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charline Lenaerts
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Faculty of medicine and pharmacy, Research Institute for Health Sciences and Technology, University of Mons, Mons, Belgium
| | - Mathilde Wells
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Faculty of medicine and pharmacy, Research Institute for Health Sciences and Technology, University of Mons, Mons, Belgium
| | - Stéphanie Hambÿe
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Faculty of medicine and pharmacy, Research Institute for Health Sciences and Technology, University of Mons, Mons, Belgium
| | - Bertrand Blankert
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Faculty of medicine and pharmacy, Research Institute for Health Sciences and Technology, University of Mons, Mons, Belgium
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Jiang L, Liang SC, Wang C, Ge GB, Huo XK, Qi XY, Deng S, Liu KX, Ma XC. Identifying and applying a highly selective probe to simultaneously determine the O-glucuronidation activity of human UGT1A3 and UGT1A4. Sci Rep 2015; 5:9627. [PMID: 25884245 PMCID: PMC4401096 DOI: 10.1038/srep09627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2014] [Accepted: 03/11/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Glucuronidation mediated by uridine 5′-diphospho (UDP)-glucuronosyltransferase is an important detoxification pathway. However, identifying a selective probe of UDP- glucuronosyltransferase is complicated because of the significant overlapping substrate specificity displayed by the enzyme. In this paper, desacetylcinobufagin (DACB) 3-O- and 16-O-glucuronidation were found to be isoform-specific probe reactions for UGT1A4 and UGT1A3, respectively. DACB was well characterized as a probe for simultaneously determining the catalytic activities of O-glucuronidation mediated by UGT1A3 and UGT1A4 from various enzyme sources, through a sensitive analysis method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Jiang
- College of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Pharmacokinetic and Drug Transport of Liaoning, Academy of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Si-Cheng Liang
- 1] Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Resource Discovery, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China [2] Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Chao Wang
- College of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Pharmacokinetic and Drug Transport of Liaoning, Academy of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Guang-Bo Ge
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Resource Discovery, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China
| | - Xiao-Kui Huo
- College of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Pharmacokinetic and Drug Transport of Liaoning, Academy of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Xiao-Yi Qi
- Second Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Sa Deng
- College of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Pharmacokinetic and Drug Transport of Liaoning, Academy of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Ke-Xin Liu
- College of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Pharmacokinetic and Drug Transport of Liaoning, Academy of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Xiao-Chi Ma
- College of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Pharmacokinetic and Drug Transport of Liaoning, Academy of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
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Tian XG, Wang C, Ge GB, Ning J, Ai CZ, Hong JY, Cai YX, Huo XK, Hou J, Liu KX, Sun HZ, Ma XC. A highly selective probe for UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2B7 (UGT2B7) in human microsomes: isoform specificity, kinetic characterization, and applications. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra09819f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
3-Epideacetycinobufagin (EDCB) was found to be a highly isoform-specific probe for 3-glucuronidation mediated by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2B7 (UGT2B7). The reaction was well-characterized, suggesting that EDCB can be used to measure the catalytic activity of UGT2B7.
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Yoshika M, Komiyama Y, Takahashi H. Isolation of marinobufotoxin from the supernatant of cultured PC12 cells. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2011; 38:334-7. [PMID: 21401694 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2011.05512.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
1. Digitalis-like factors (DLFs) are believed to be involved in sodium metabolism via inhibition of Na(+) /K(+) -ATPase and may cause hypertension. Yet, the source and regulation of secretion of DLFs remain unknown. Recently, marinobufagenin (MBG) was isolated in mammals and implicated in renal sodium and water metabolism. More recently, we isolated marinobufotoxin (MBT), a suberoyl arginine ester of MBG, in Y-1 cells. We have developed an ELISA to measure MBG-like immunoreactivity (MBG-IR) and have characterized MBG-IR using chromatography. We have also identified a ouabain-like factor in cultured PC12 cells from a phaeochromocytoma cell line. In the present study, we examined whether MBT was produced in the adrenal medulla. 2. PC12 cells were cultured in serum-free medium and culture supernatants were collected over a period of 24 h. The supernatants were analysed by ELISA and HPLC to determine MBG-IR content. The HPLC fraction containing the main peak of MBG-IR was characterized by LC/MS. 3. Compared with samples collected at 0.5 h, the concentration of MBG-IR in culture supernatants increased significantly after 2 h and continued to increase until 24 h. The fraction with the highest ELISA peak for MBG-IR had the same HPLC elution time as authentic MBT. Furthermore, tandem mass spectrometry indicated that each fraction of MBT and MBG had the correct specific daughter ions. 4. The results indicate that MBT and MBG are produced and/or secreted by adrenomedullary cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masamichi Yoshika
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Laboratory Medicine, Kansai Medical University, Osaka, Japan
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