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Tibenda JJ, Du Y, Huang S, Chen G, Ning N, Liu W, Ye M, Nan Y, Yuan L. Pharmacological Mechanisms and Adjuvant Properties of Licorice Glycyrrhiza in Treating Gastric Cancer. Molecules 2023; 28:6966. [PMID: 37836809 PMCID: PMC10574419 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28196966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Licorice is a remarkable traditional Chinese medicine obtained from the dried root and rhizomes of the Glycyrrhiza genus, and t has been utilized in China for many centuries. It consists of more than 300 compounds that are mainly divided into triterpene saponins, flavonoids, polysaccharides, and phenolic components. The active compounds of licorice have been found to possess multiple biological activities, including antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antimicrobial, immunoregulatory, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective functions. In addition to providing a brief overview of licorice's adjuvant properties, this review describes and analyzes the pharmacological mechanisms by which licorice components function to treat gastric cancer. Furthermore, licorice compounds are also found to be potent adjuvant chemotherapy agents, as they can improve the quality of life of cancer patients and alleviate chemotherapy-induced adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Japhet Tibenda
- College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China; (J.J.T.); (Y.D.); (S.H.); (G.C.); (N.N.)
| | - Yuhua Du
- College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China; (J.J.T.); (Y.D.); (S.H.); (G.C.); (N.N.)
| | - Shicong Huang
- College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China; (J.J.T.); (Y.D.); (S.H.); (G.C.); (N.N.)
| | - Guoqing Chen
- College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China; (J.J.T.); (Y.D.); (S.H.); (G.C.); (N.N.)
| | - Na Ning
- College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China; (J.J.T.); (Y.D.); (S.H.); (G.C.); (N.N.)
| | - Wenjing Liu
- Key Laboratory of Hui Ethnic Medicine Modernization of Ministry of Education, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China;
| | - Mengyi Ye
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China;
| | - Yi Nan
- Key Laboratory of Hui Ethnic Medicine Modernization of Ministry of Education, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China;
| | - Ling Yuan
- College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China; (J.J.T.); (Y.D.); (S.H.); (G.C.); (N.N.)
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Chen HH, Zhang R, Tan SQ, Wang Y, Liu XL, Shi WP. Components and composition of active volatiles attract on Diorhabda tarsalis (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) from Glycyrrhiza uralensis (Rosales: Leguminoseae). Front Ecol Evol 2023. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.1080208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionPerennial Chinese licorice, Glycyrrhiza uralensis, is an important medicinal plant. Diorhabda tarsalis, a leaf beetle, is a serious insect pest on the plant and cause serious yield losses every year and is attracted to healthy and pest-damaged licorice by plant volatiles.AimThe biologically active components of the volatiles released from G. uralensis have not been reported; the components of the volatiles that attract D. tarsalis need to be identified. Such compounds could potentially be used for monitoring and mass-trapping pests.MethodsGC-EAD, GC-MS, EAG, Y-shaped olfactometer behavioral bioassays, and field trials were performed to identify the components and composition of active volatiles.ResultsMale and virgin female adults were generally attracted to volatiles from licorice, and volatiles from pest-infested plants were more attractive. Four compounds from licorice elicited a significant electrophysiological response (EAD) and were confirmed by EAG, including hexanal, (Z)-3-hexenal, (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol, and (E)-2-hexenal. With the exception of the (E)-2-hexenal, these molecules significantly attracted adults in individual behavioral bioassays, and a proportional mixture corresponding to beetle-damaged licorice of hexanal, (Z)-3-hexenal, (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol, and (E)-2-hexenal (8.78:15.26:57.24:18.72) was most effective for attracting D. tarsalis in the field, attracted a mean of 26 ± 7.19 beetles per trap.DiscussionD. tarsalis was attracted to volatiles from healthy and herbivore-induced G. uralensis under both laboratory and field conditions. The aforementioned compounds show considerable potential for commercial application to monitor and control D. tarsalis populations.
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Shang Z, Liu C, Qiao X, Ye M. Chemical analysis of the Chinese herbal medicine licorice (Gan-Cao): An update review. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2022; 299:115686. [PMID: 36067839 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2022.115686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Licorice, called Gan-Cao in China, is one of the most popular traditional herbal medicines. It is derived from the dried roots and rhizomes of Glycyrrhiza uralensis, G. glabra, and G. inflata. Licorice is recorded in the pharmacopoeias of China, Japan, US, and Europe. AIM This review updates research progress of licorice from the perspectives of chemical analysis, quality evaluation, drug metabolism, and pharmacokinetic studies from 2009 to April 2022. MATERIALS AND METHODS Both English and Chinese literatures were collected from databases including PubMed, Elsevier, Web of Science, and CNKI (Chinese). Licorice, extraction, structural characterization/identification, quality control, metabolism, and pharmacokinetics were used as keywords. RESULTS Newly developed analytical methods, including LC/UV, 2DLC, LC/MS, GC/MS, and mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) for chemical analysis of licorice were summarized. CONCLUSION This review provides a comprehensive summary on chemical analysis of licorice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhanpeng Shang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Chenrui Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Xue Qiao
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing, 100191, China.
| | - Min Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing, 100191, China; Yunnan Baiyao International Medical Research Center, Peking University, 38 Xueyuan Road, Beijing, 100191, China.
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Mohammed ED, Zhang Z, Tian W, Gangarapu V, Al-Gendy AA, Chen J, Wei J, Sun B. Modulation of IR as a therapeutic target to prevent NASH using NRF from Diceratella elliptica (DC.) jonsell. Strong Nrf2 and leptin inducer as well as NF-kB inhibitor. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2021; 80:153388. [PMID: 33113501 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2020.153388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Revised: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Insulin resistance (IR) and lipotoxicity were evidenced as the major nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) initiators. However, absence of the effective treatment against NASH progression raised our aim to discover a new promising insulin modulator and NSH preventer. PURPOSE Our study aimed to extract and prepare a nitriles rich fraction (NRF) from Diceratella elliptica (DC.) Jonsell, investigate its insulin-sensitizing & anti-NASH potentialities and address its molecular targets in IR-NASH pathogenesis. STUDY DESIGN NRF was prepared using natural autolysis method and compounds were identified. Then, seventy male Wistar rats were feed high fat diet (HFD) or normal pellets for 35 days. In day 14th, HFD rats were injected by Streptozotocin (STZ) once and treatment was started in day 21st with either NRF (30, 60 and 120 mg/kg; orally) or pioglitazone (PioG) (10 mg/kg; i.p) beside HFD. While, NRF-alone rats were treated with NRF (120 mg/kg; orally) beside the normal pellets. Body weight, glucose homeostasis, hepatopathological examinations were performed. METHODS Gas liquid chromatography-mass spectrophotometry (GLC/MS) was used for compounds' identification while spectrophotometer was used for total glucosinolates (GLS) quantification. Also, the biochemical and molecular investigations concerned with liver lipotoxicity, oxidative stress, inflammation and insulin signaling pathway were investigated and confirmed with the computational prediction of the major compounds' targets. RESULTS Butenyl and benzyl GLS were the major along with other volatile compounds. NRF had significantly increased the insulin sensitivity and improved NASH-hisptopathology showing hepatoprotective effect. While, the fraction's anti-NASH potentiality was evidenced in the normalized hepatic steatosis markers, inflammation and oxidative stress key transcriptional factors resulting in induction of insulin receptor substrates (IRSs) phosphorylation and its downstream effectors. CONCLUSION NRF has reversed IR, stimulated leptin secretion and prevented NASH initiation showing promising anti-NASH and anti-fibrotic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eman D Mohammed
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Pharmacy Collage of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210000, China; Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210000, China; Natural Products Unit, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Department, Desert Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Zechuan Zhang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210000, China
| | - Wenfang Tian
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210000, China
| | - Venkatanarayana Gangarapu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210000, China
| | - A A Al-Gendy
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Jun Chen
- Department of Pathology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210000, China.
| | - Jifu Wei
- Research Division of Clinical Pharmacology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Pharmacy College of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210000, China
| | - Beicheng Sun
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210000, China; Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Clinical College of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210000, China.
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Dong X, Zheng F, Liu X, Zhang L, Hu R, Wang L, Hao X, Xue P. Simultaneous Quantitative Analysis of Q-Marker with One Single Reference in Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. J Chromatogr Sci 2020; 58:511-519. [PMID: 32266386 DOI: 10.1093/chromsci/bmaa015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) studies, it is difficult to choose evaluation markers for the strict quality control of herbs. A high performance liquid chromatography coupled with metabolomics for simultaneous quantitative analysis of quality markers (Q-markers) in Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch was established, which could not only ensure the quality and batch-to-batch consistency of TCMs, but also achieve a quantitative analysis of multi-components by the single reference standard. Based on the construction of chromatographic profiles by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and HPLC-Q-Exactive/MS methods, different multivariate analyses were employed. Seven quantitative indices were selected as the Q-markers, and a reliable quantification method was established. The quantitative method was acceptable with good linearity with correlation coefficients >0.9993 and satisfactory repeatability (relative standard deviation (RSD) < 0.05%), precision (RSD < 0.24%), reproducibility (RSD < 0.97%), stability (RSD < 2.52%) and recoveries (96.96%-98.52%, RSD < 3.24%), and no significant differences were observed between the external standard method and the new method as determined by calculating standard method difference. Overall, the study suggests that the simultaneous quantitative analysis of main Q-marker in G. uralensis Fisch with one single marker can be considered good quality criteria for performing quality control of G. uralensis Fisch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Dong
- Department of Pharmacy, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Jinshan Development Zone, Hohhot 010100, China
| | - Fangyuan Zheng
- Department of Pharmacy, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Jinshan Development Zone, Hohhot 010100, China
| | - Xin Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Jinshan Development Zone, Hohhot 010100, China
| | - Lianju Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Jinshan Development Zone, Hohhot 010100, China
| | - Rongqin Hu
- Department of Pharmacy, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Jinshan Development Zone, Hohhot 010100, China
| | - Lingcheng Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Jinshan Development Zone, Hohhot 010100, China
| | - Xiaoyun Hao
- Department of Pharmacy, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Jinshan Development Zone, Hohhot 010100, China
| | - Peifeng Xue
- Department of Pharmacy, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Jinshan Development Zone, Hohhot 010100, China
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Jiang M, Zhao S, Yang S, Lin X, He X, Wei X, Song Q, Li R, Fu C, Zhang J, Zhang Z. An "essential herbal medicine"-licorice: A review of phytochemicals and its effects in combination preparations. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2020; 249:112439. [PMID: 31811935 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2019.112439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Licorice (Gancao in Chinese, GC), the dried root and rhizome of Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch., Glycyrrhiza inflata Bat. or Glycyrrhiza glabra L., is an "essential herbal medicine" in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). There is a classic traditional Chinese medicine theory says that "nine out of ten formulas contain licorice" and licorice is considered as one of the most important herbal medicine which can reduce toxicity and increase efficacy of certain herbal medicine while it is combined application. In addition, it is a "medicine food homology" herbal medicine and also be widely used as a health food product and natural sweetener. However, no systematic literature review has been compiled to reveal its superiority. Herein, the aim of this work is to develop an overview of the state on phytochemicals, as well as effects of licorice in combination preparations, which can provide better understand the superiority of licorice and the special position in the application of TCM. Besides, ethnobotany, ethnopharmacological uses, quality control and toxicology of licorice have also been researched, which would provide reference for future clinical and basic research needs. MATERIALS AND METHODS The information about licorice was collected from various sources including classic books about Chinese herbal medicine, and scientific databases including scientific journals, books, and pharmacopoeia. A total of 124 bibliographies, which are published from 1976 to 2019, have been searched and researched. RESULTS In this study, the interaction of chemical compounds between licorice and toxic herbal medicine, pharmacological effect of licorice, and the effect of licorice on pharmacokinetics of toxic compounds are considered as the main mechanisms underlying the effects of licorice in combination preparations. Besides, ethnobotany, ethnopharmacological uses and chemical constituents have been summarized. CONCLUSION This work comprehensively reviews the state on ethnobotany, ethnopharmacological uses, phytochemicals, combined applications, quality control and toxicology of licorice. It will provide systematic insights into this ancient drug for further development and clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maoyuan Jiang
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine; State Key Laboratory of Characteristic Chinese Medicine Resources in Southwest China, Chengdu 611137, China.
| | - Shengjia Zhao
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine; State Key Laboratory of Characteristic Chinese Medicine Resources in Southwest China, Chengdu 611137, China.
| | - Shasha Yang
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine; State Key Laboratory of Characteristic Chinese Medicine Resources in Southwest China, Chengdu 611137, China.
| | - Xia Lin
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine; State Key Laboratory of Characteristic Chinese Medicine Resources in Southwest China, Chengdu 611137, China.
| | - Xiguo He
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine; State Key Laboratory of Characteristic Chinese Medicine Resources in Southwest China, Chengdu 611137, China.
| | - Xinyi Wei
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine; State Key Laboratory of Characteristic Chinese Medicine Resources in Southwest China, Chengdu 611137, China.
| | - Qin Song
- Graduate School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 0010024, Japan.
| | - Rui Li
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine; State Key Laboratory of Characteristic Chinese Medicine Resources in Southwest China, Chengdu 611137, China.
| | - Chaomei Fu
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine; State Key Laboratory of Characteristic Chinese Medicine Resources in Southwest China, Chengdu 611137, China.
| | - Jinming Zhang
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine; State Key Laboratory of Characteristic Chinese Medicine Resources in Southwest China, Chengdu 611137, China.
| | - Zhen Zhang
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine; State Key Laboratory of Characteristic Chinese Medicine Resources in Southwest China, Chengdu 611137, China.
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Chen J, Wei F, Ma SC. Application of analytical chemistry in the quality evaluation of Glycyrrhiza Spp. J LIQ CHROMATOGR R T 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/10826076.2018.1531293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jia Chen
- National Institute for Food and Drug Control, State Food and Drug Administration, Beijing, China
| | - Feng Wei
- National Institute for Food and Drug Control, State Food and Drug Administration, Beijing, China
| | - Shuang-Cheng Ma
- National Institute for Food and Drug Control, State Food and Drug Administration, Beijing, China
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A modified multiscale peak alignment method combined with trilinear decomposition to study the volatile/heat-labile components in Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort - Cyperus rotundus rhizomes by HS-SPME-GC/MS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2018; 1079:41-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2018.01.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Accurate recognition and feature qualify for flavonoid extracts from Liang-wai Gan Cao by liquid chromatography-high resolution-mass spectrometry and computational MS/MS fragmentation. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2017; 146:37-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2017.07.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Revised: 07/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Determination of volatile organic compounds exhaled by cell lines derived from hematological malignancies. Biosci Rep 2017; 37:BSR20170106. [PMID: 28507202 PMCID: PMC5479021 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20170106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The gas human exhaled contains many volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which is related to the health status of body. Analysis of VOCs has been proposed as a noninvasive diagnostic tool for certain cancers. Detailed research on the VOCs in gas exhaled by cell can characterize cell type specific metabolites and may be helpful to detect the cancer markers in clinical practice. Methods: Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) gas chromatography–mass spectrometry was used to detect VOCs in the headspace of tissue culture flask in non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL) cell line JEKO and acute mononuclear leukemia cell line SHI-1, to elaborate the characteristic gaseous biomarkers of hematological malignancies. While macrophage cells and lymphocytic cells were acted as control. The blank group was only the RPMI 1640 medium containing 10% fetal calf serum that without cells. Results: Comparing with control group, the concentration of dimethyl sulfide, 2,4-dimethylheptane, methylbenzene, o-xylene, dodecane, and 1,3-di-tert-butylbenzene in JEKO cells was relatively higher, while the concentration of ethanol, hexanal, and benzaldehyde was lower. In SHI-1 cells, the levels of 2,4-dimethylheptane, benzene, 4-methyldecane, chloroform, 3,7-dimethyl dodecane, and hexadecane were significantly elevated, but the levels of hexanol and cyclohexanol were distinctly reduced. Conclusions: This pilot study revealed that the malignant hematological cells could change the components of VOCs in the cell culture flask in a cell type-specific pattern. The traits of VOCs in our setting offered new strategy for hematological malignancies tracing, and would act as potential biomarkers in diagnosis of malignant hematological diseases.
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Chemometrics-enhanced one-dimensional/comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatographic analysis for bioactive terpenoids and phthalides in Chaihu Shugan San essential oils. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2017; 1052:158-168. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2017.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2016] [Revised: 02/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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