MicroRNA-638 is highly expressed in human vascular smooth muscle cells and inhibits PDGF-BB-induced cell proliferation and migration through targeting orphan nuclear receptor NOR1

Network pharmacology provides new insights into the mechanism of traditional Chinese medicine and natural products used to treat pulmonary hypertension

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a rare cardiovascular disease with high morbidity and mortality rates. It is characterized by increased pulmonary arterial pressure. Current research into relevant therapeutic drugs and targets for PH, however, is insufficient still. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and natural products have a long history as therapeutics for PH. Network pharmacology is an approach that integrates drug-target interactions and signaling pathways based on biomarkers information obtained from drug and disease databases. The concept of network pharmacology shows many similarities with the TCM philosophy. Network pharmacology help elucidate the mechanisms of TCM in PH. This review presents representative applications of network pharmacology in the study of the mechanisms of TCM and natural products for the treatment of PH.

METHODS

In this review, we used ("pulmonary hypertension" OR "pulmonary arterial hypertension" OR "chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension") AND ("network pharmacology" OR "systematic pharmacology") as keywords to search for reports from PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases from ten years ago. The studies were screened and those chosen are summarized here. The TCM and natural products inPH and their corresponding targets and signaling pathways are described. Additionally, we discuss the application of network pharmacology in the study of TCM in PH to provide insights for future application strategies.

RESULTS

Network pharmacology have shown that AKT-related pathways, HIF-1 signaling pathway, MAPK signaling pathway, TGF-β-Smad pathway, cell cycle-related pathways and inflammation-related pathways are the main signaling pathways enriched in the PH targets of TCM. Reservatrol, curcumol, genistin, formononetin, wogonin, luteolin, baicalein, berberine, triptolide and tanshinone llA are active ingredients specific for PH treatment. A number of databases and tools specific for the treatment of PH are used in network pharmacology and natural product research.

CONCLUSION

Through the reasonable combination of molecular docking, omics technology and bioinformatics technology, the mechanism of multi-targets can be explained more comprehensively. Analyzing the complex mechanism of TCM from the clinical perspective may be a potential development trend of network pharmacology. Combination of predicted targets and traditional pharmacology improves efficiency of drug development.

17β-Estradiol Abrogates TNF-α-Induced Human Brain Vascular Pericyte Migration by Downregulating miR-638 via ER-β

Pericytes (PCs) contribute to brain capillary/BBB integrity and PC migration is a hallmark for brain capillary leakage following pro-inflammatory insults. Estradiol promotes endothelial barrier integrity by inhibiting tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)-induced PC migration. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Since micro-RNAs (miRs) regulate BBB integrity and increases in miR638 and TNF-α occur in pathological events associated with capillary leakage, we hypothesize that TNF-α mediates its capillary disruptive actions via miR638 and that estradiol blocks these actions. Using quantitative reverse transcription PCR, we first assessed the modulatory effects of TNF-α on miR638. The treatment of PCs with TNF-α significantly induced miR638. Moreover, transfection with miR638 mimic induced PC migration, whereas inhibitory miR638 (anti-miR) abrogated the pro-migratory actions of TNF-α, suggesting that TNF-α stimulates PC migration via miR638. At a molecular level, the pro-migratory effects of miR638 involved the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 but not Akt. Interestingly, estradiol downregulated the constitutive and TNF-α-stimulated expression of miR638 and inhibited the TNF-α-induced migration of PCs. In PCs treated with estrogen receptor (ER) ER-α, ER-β, and GPR30 agonists, a significant downregulation in miR638 expression was solely observed in response to DPN, an ER-β agonist. DPN inhibited the pro-migratory effects of TNF-α but not miR638. Additionally, the ectopic expression of miR638 prevented the inhibitory effects of DPN on TNF-α-induced PC migration, suggesting that interference in miR638 formation plays a key role in mediating the inhibitory actions of estradiol/DPN. In conclusion, these findings provide the first evidence that estradiol inhibits TNF-α-induced PC migration by specifically downregulating miR638 via ER-β and may protect the neurovascular unit during injury/stroke via this mechanism.

Angiopoietin-like 4 facilitates human aortic smooth muscle cell phenotype switch and dysfunctions through the PI3K/Akt signaling in aortic dissection

PURPOSE

Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) phenotype switch and dysfunctions have been reported to participate in aortic dissection (AD) progression. This study was aimed to investigate the role of angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4) in regulating VSMCs phenotype switch.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Key genes were analyzed in AD using public datasets, and it was found that the central differential gene ANGPTL4 was up-regulated in AD. The KEGG signaling pathway annotation was performed to validate the associated pathways, and the expression of ANGPTL4 was verified using multiple datasets and clinical samples. Furthermore, the specific functions of ANGPTL4 on platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB)-treated human aortic smooth muscle cell (HASMC) phenotypes were investigated. The dynamic effects of ANGPTL4 and core signaling antagonists on HASMC phenotypes were examined.

RESULTS

Hub gene ANGPTL4 was significantly up-regulated in AD. ANGPTL4 was linked to the PI3K/Akt signaling, angiogenesis, and neovascularization and remodeling. ANGPTL4 overexpression further enhanced PDGF-BB effects on HASMC phenotypes, including promoted cell viability and migration, decreased contractile VSMC markers α-SMA and SM22α, elevated ECM degradation markers MMP-2 and MMP-9, and promoted phosphorylation of PI3K and Akt. ANGPTL4 knockdown partially abolished PDGF-BB-induced contractile/synthetic VSMCs imbalance and HASMC dysfunctions. Furthermore, in ANGPTL4-overexpressing HASMCs pre-treated with PDGF-BB, the PI3K/Akt signaling inhibitor LY294002 also partially eliminated the effects caused by the PDGF-BB treatment and ANGPTL4 overexpression.

CONCLUSIONS

ANGPTL4 is significantly up-regulated in AD. ANGPTL4 overexpression further enhanced PDGF-BB effects on HASMC phenotype switch and dysfunctions, which might be involved in the PI3K/Akt signaling.

Transcription Factor 21: A Transcription Factor That Plays an Important Role in Cardiovascular Disease

BACKGROUND

According to the World Health Organisation's Health Report 2019, approximately 17.18 million people die from cardiovascular disease each year, accounting for more than 30% of all global deaths. Therefore, the occurrence of cardiovascular disease is still a global concern. The transcription factor 21 (TCF21) plays an important role in cardiovascular diseases. This article reviews the regulation mechanism of TCF21 expression and activity and focuses on its important role in atherosclerosis in order to contribute to the development of diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases.

SUMMARY

TCF21 is involved in the phenotypic regulation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), promotes the proliferation and migration of VSMCs, and participates in the activation of inflammatory sequences. Increased proliferation and migration of VSMCs can lead to neointimal hyperplasia after vascular injury. Abnormal hyperplasia of neointima and inflammation are one of the main features of atherosclerosis. Therefore, targeting TCF21 may become a potential treatment for relieving atherosclerosis.

KEY MESSAGES

TCF21 as a member of basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors regulates cell growth and differentiation by modulating gene expression during the development of different organs and plays an important role in cardiovascular development and disease. VSMCs and cells derived from VSMCs constitute the majority of plaques in atherosclerosis. TCF21 plays a key role in regulation of VSMCs' phenotype, thus accelerating atherogenesis in the early stage. However, TCF21 enhances plaque stability in late-stage atherosclerosis. The dual role of TCF21 should be considered in the translational medicine.

MicroRNA regulation of phenotypic transformations in vascular smooth muscle: relevance to vascular remodeling

Alterations in the vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) phenotype play a critical role in the pathogenesis of several cardiovascular diseases, including hypertension, atherosclerosis, and restenosis after angioplasty. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of endogenous noncoding RNAs (approximately 19-25 nucleotides in length) that function as regulators in various physiological and pathophysiological events. Recent studies have suggested that aberrant miRNAs' expression might underlie VSMC phenotypic transformation, appearing to regulate the phenotypic transformations of VSMCs by targeting specific genes that either participate in the maintenance of the contractile phenotype or contribute to the transformation to alternate phenotypes, and affecting atherosclerosis, hypertension, and coronary artery disease by altering VSMC proliferation, migration, differentiation, inflammation, calcification, oxidative stress, and apoptosis, suggesting an important regulatory role in vascular remodeling for maintaining vascular homeostasis. This review outlines recent progress in the discovery of miRNAs and elucidation of their mechanisms of action and functions in VSMC phenotypic regulation. Importantly, as the literature supports roles for miRNAs in modulating vascular remodeling and for maintaining vascular homeostasis, this area of research will likely provide new insights into clinical diagnosis and prognosis and ultimately facilitate the identification of novel therapeutic targets.

Regulation of oxidized LDL-induced proliferation and migration in human vascular smooth muscle cells by a novel circ_0007478/miR-638/ROCK2 ceRNA network

BACKGROUND

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis (AS) and the migration and proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) under oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL). Here, we defined the exact action of human circ_0007478 in VSMC migration and proliferation induced by ox-LDL.

METHODS

Human VSMCs (HVSMCs) were exposed to ox-LDL. Circ_0007478, microRNA (miR)-638, and rho-associated protein kinase 2 (ROCK2) levels were gauged by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and western blot. Cell viability and proliferation were assessed by MTT and EdU assays, respectively. Transwell assays were used to detect cell migration and invasion. Dual-luciferase reporter and RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) assays were used to evaluate the direct relationship between miR-638 and circ_0007478 or ROCK2.

RESULTS

Our data indicated that circ_0007478 expression was augmented in AS serum samples and ox-LDL-treated HVSMCs. Depletion of circ_0007478 attenuated HVSMC proliferation, migration, and invasion induced by ox-LDL. Mechanistically, circ_0007478 targeted miR-638 by directly pairing to miR-638. Reduction of miR-638 reversed the effects of circ_0007478 depletion on ox-LDL-evoked proliferation, migration, and invasion in HVSMCs. ROCK2 was a direct miR-638 target and miR-638-mediated inhibition of ROCK2 relieved ox-LDL-evoked HVSMC proliferation, migration, and invasion. Furthermore, circ_0007478 was identified as a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) for miR-638 to modulate ROCK2 expression.

CONCLUSION

Our present study establishes an undescribed ceRNA regulatory network, in which circ_0007478 targets miR-638 to upregulate ROCK2, thereby contributing to ox-LDL-induced proliferation and migration in HVSMCs.

Noncoding RNAs in Vascular Cell Biology and Restenosis

In-stent restenosis (ISR), characterised by ≥50% re-narrowing of the target vessel, is a common complication following stent implantation and remains a significant challenge to the long-term success of angioplasty procedures. Considering the global burden of cardiovascular diseases, improving angioplasty patient outcomes remains a key priority. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) including microRNA (miRNA), long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) and circular RNA (circRNA) have been extensively implicated in vascular cell biology and ISR through multiple, both distinct and overlapping, mechanisms. Vascular smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells and macrophages constitute the main cell types involved in the multifactorial pathophysiology of ISR. The identification of critical regulators exemplified by ncRNAs in all these cell types and processes makes them an exciting therapeutic target in the field of restenosis. In this review, we will comprehensively explore the potential functions and underlying molecular mechanisms of ncRNAs in vascular cell biology in the context of restenosis, with an in-depth focus on vascular cell dysfunction during restenosis development and progression. We will also discuss the diagnostic biomarker and therapeutic target potential of ncRNAs in ISR. Finally, we will discuss the current shortcomings, challenges, and perspectives toward the clinical application of ncRNAs.

The Etiology and Molecular Mechanism Underlying Smooth Muscle Phenotype Switching in Intimal Hyperplasia of Vein Graft and the Regulatory Role of microRNAs

Mounting evidence suggests that the phenotypic transformation of venous smooth muscle cells (SMCs) from differentiated (contractile) to dedifferentiated (proliferative and migratory) phenotypes causes excessive proliferation and further migration to the intima leading to intimal hyperplasia, which represents one of the key pathophysiological mechanisms of vein graft restenosis. In recent years, numerous miRNAs have been identified as specific phenotypic regulators of vascular SMCs (VSMCs), which play a vital role in intimal hyperplasia in vein grafts. The review sought to provide a comprehensive overview of the etiology of intimal hyperplasia, factors affecting the phenotypic transformation of VSMCs in vein graft, and molecular mechanisms of miRNAs involved in SMCs phenotypic modulation in intimal hyperplasia of vein graft reported in recent years.

Tracking an Elusive Killer: State of the Art of Molecular-Genetic Knowledge and Laboratory Role in Diagnosis and Risk Stratification of Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm and Dissection

The main challenge in diagnosing and managing thoracic aortic aneurysm and dissection (TAA/D) is represented by the early detection of a disease that is both deadly and “elusive”, as it generally grows asymptomatically prior to rupture, leading to death in the majority of cases. Gender differences exist in aortic dissection in terms of incidence and treatment options. Efforts have been made to identify biomarkers that may help in early diagnosis and in detecting those patients at a higher risk of developing life-threatening complications. As soon as the hereditability of the TAA/D was demonstrated, several genetic factors were found to be associated with both the syndromic and non-syndromic forms of the disease, and they currently play a role in patient diagnosis/prognosis and management-guidance purposes. Likewise, circulating biomarker could represent a valuable resource in assisting the diagnosis, and several studies have attempted to identify specific molecules that may help with risk stratification outside the emergency department. Even if promising, those data lack specificity/sensitivity, and, in most cases, they need more testing before entering the “clinical arena”. This review summarizes the state of the art of the laboratory in TAA/D diagnostics, with particular reference to the current and future role of molecular-genetic testing.

Delivery of miR-654-5p via SonoVue Microbubble Ultrasound Inhibits Proliferation, Migration, and Invasion of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells and Arterial Thrombosis and Stenosis through Targeting TCF21

Background

Abnormal proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is an important cause of vascular stenosis. The study explored the mechanism of inhibition of vascular stenosis through the molecular mechanism of smooth muscle cell phenotype transformation.

Methods

Coronary heart disease-related genes were screened by bioinformatics, and the target genes of miR-654-5p were predicted by dual-luciferase method and immunofluorescence method. miR-654-5p mimic stimulation and transfection of TCF21 and MTAP into cells. SonoVue microbubble sonication was used to deliver miR-654-5p into cells. Cell proliferation, migration, and invasion were detected by CCK-8, wound scratch, and Transwell. HE and IHC staining were performed to study the effect of miR-654-5p delivery via SonoVue microbubble ultrasound on vessel stenosis in a model of arterial injury. Gene expression was determined by qRT-PCR and WB.

Results

TCF21 and MTAP were predicted as the target genes of miR-654-5p. Cytokines induced smooth muscle cell proliferation, migration, and invasion and promoted miR-654-5p downregulation; noticeably, downregulated miR-654-5p was positively associated with the cell proliferation and migration. Overexpression of TCF21 promoted proliferation, invasion, and migration, and mimic reversed such effects. miR-654-5p overexpression delivered by SonoVue microbubble ultrasound inhibited proliferation, migration, and invasion of cells. Moreover, in arterial injury model, we found that SonoVue microbubble ultrasound transmitted miR-654-5p into the arterial wall to inhibit arterial thrombosis and stenosis, while TCF21 was inhibited.

Conclusion

Ultrasound delivery of miR-654-5p via SonoVue microbubbles was able to inhibit arterial thrombosis and stenosis by targeting TCF21.

Nuclear receptor NOR-1 (Neuron-derived Orphan Receptor-1) in pathological vascular remodelling and vascular remodelling

Vascular cells and their interaction with inflammatory cells and the immune system play a key role in pathological vascular remodeling. A large number of genes and proteins regulated in a coordinated manner by a small number of transcription factors are involved in this process. In recent years, research on a small subfamily of transcription factors, the NR4A subfamily, has had a major impact on our understanding of vascular biology. The NR4A1 (Nur77), NR4A2 (Nurr1) and NR4A3 (NOR-1) receptors are products of early response genes whose expression is induced by multiple pathophysiological and physical stimuli. Their wide distribution in different tissues and cells places them in the control of numerous processes such as cell differentiation, proliferation, survival and apoptosis, as well as inflammation and the metabolism of lipids and carbohydrates. This review analyzes the role of these receptors, particularly NOR-1, in pathological vascular remodeling associated with atherosclerosis, abdominal aortic aneurysm and pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Insights Into the Role of Platelet-Derived Growth Factors: Implications for Parkinson’s Disease Pathogenesis and Treatment

Parkinson’s disease (PD), the second most common neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer’s disease, commonly occurs in the elderly population, causing a significant medical and economic burden to the aging society worldwide. At present, there are few effective methods that achieve satisfactory clinical results in the treatment of PD. Platelet-derived growth factors (PDGFs) and platelet-derived growth factor receptors (PDGFRs) are important neurotrophic factors that are expressed in various cell types. Their unique structures allow for specific binding that can effectively regulate vital functions in the nervous system. In this review, we summarized the possible mechanisms by which PDGFs/PDGFRs regulate the occurrence and development of PD by affecting oxidative stress, mitochondrial function, protein folding and aggregation, Ca2+ homeostasis, and cell neuroinflammation. These modes of action mainly depend on the type and distribution of PDGFs in different nerve cells. We also summarized the possible clinical applications and prospects for PDGF in the treatment of PD, especially in genetic treatment. Recent advances have shown that PDGFs have contradictory roles within the central nervous system (CNS). Although they exert neuroprotective effects through multiple pathways, they are also associated with the disruption of the blood–brain barrier (BBB). Our recommendations based on our findings include further investigation of the contradictory neurotrophic and neurotoxic effects of the PDGFs acting on the CNS.

Associations Among PCSK9 Levels, Atherosclerosis-Derived Extracellular Vesicles, and Their miRNA Content in Adults With Obesity

Background: Extracellular vesicles (EV) concentration is generally increased in patients with cardiovascular diseases, although the protective role of EVs in atherosclerosis has been reported. Among the specific cargo of EVs, miRNAs contribute to different stages of atherosclerosis. Aim of the present report has been to investigate, in individuals with obesity, the interplay among EVs derived from cells relevant for the atherosclerotic process (i.e., platelets, endothelium, monocytes/macrophages, and neutrophils), their miRNA content and proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9), one of the main regulators of low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR).

Methods and Results: EVs have been isolated from 936 individuals with obesity (body mass index = 33.6 ± 5.6 Kg/m²) and a raised cardiovascular risk (e.g., LDL-C = 131.6 ± 36.4 mg/dL, HOMA-IR = 3.1, and roughly 50% on anti-hypertensive medications). PCSK9 levels were negatively associated with EV count in the range 150–400 nm and with those derived from macrophages (CD14⁺), endothelium (CD105⁺), and neutrophils (CD66⁺). The association between PCSK9 and platelet-derived EVs (CD61⁺) was modified by platelet counts. PCSK9 was significantly associated with five EV-derived miRNAs (hsa-miRNA−362−5p,−150,−1244,−520b-3p,−638). Toll-like receptor 4 and estrogen receptor 1 were targeted by all five miRNAs and LDLR by four. The effect on LDLR expression is mainly driven by hsa-miR-150. Considering the implication of EV in atherosclerosis onset and progression, our findings show a potential role of PCSK9 to regulate EV-derived miRNAs, especially those involved in inflammation and expression of low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) receptor.

Emerging Roles of Circular RNAs in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Dysfunction

Atherosclerosis is the major pathophysiological basis of cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases. Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) constitute the main structure of vasculature and play important roles in maintaining vascular tone and blood pressure. Many biological processes and cellular signaling events involved in atherosclerogenesis have been shown to converge on deregulating VSMC functions. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying dysfunctional VSMC in atherosclerosis are still poorly defined. Recent evidence revealed that circular RNAs (circRNAs) are closely related to diseases such as degenerative diseases, tumor, congenital diseases, endocrine diseases and cardiovascular diseases. Several studies demonstrated that circRNAs (e.g., circACTA2, Circ-SATB2, circDiaph3, circ_0020397, circTET3, circCCDC66) played critical roles in the regulation of VSMC proliferation, migration, invasion, and contractile-to-synthetic phenotype transformation by sponging microRNAs (e.g., miR-548f-5p, miR-939, miR-148a-5p, miR-138, miR-351-5p, miR-342-3p). This review describes recent progress in the profiling of circRNAs by transcriptome analysis in VSMCs and their molecular functions in regulating VSMC proliferation and migration.

Effect of Xuezhikang Therapy on Expression of Pulmonary Hypertension Related miR-638 in Patients With Low HDL-C Levels

Objective: Low plasma level of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) associated with poor outcomes in several cardiovascular diseases, including pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). Regulation of miR-638 have been proved to be associated with PAH. The aim of this study was to evaluate the expression of miR-638 after Xuezhikang (XZK) therapy in patients with low HDL-C.

Methods: Plasma levels of miR-638 were quantified by real-time polymerase chain reactions in 20 patients with PAH and 30 healthy controls. A total of 40 subjects with low HDL-C were assigned to receive an XZK therapy for 6 months. The miR-638 expression profiles were detected in PAH patients, XZK-treated subjects and lovastatin treated pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PA-SMCs).

Results: The relative expression level of miR-638 in the plasma was lower in the PAH patients than that in the controls (p < 0.001). An increase of 11.2% from baseline in the HDL-C level was found after XZK therapy (p < 0.001). The relative expression of miR-638 was increased after XZK treatment (p < 0.01). The changes of miR-638 were inversely associated with baseline HDL-C levels. A significantly reduction in miR-638 expression were found in PDGF-BB-treated hPA-SMCs compared to the control cells, and the pre-treatment of the cells with lovastatin significantly re-gain the expression levels in miR-638.

Conclusion: In patients with low HDL-C levels, XZK therapy raised the expression of miR-638, suggesting that the potential therapeutic effect of XZK in PAH patients with low serum HDL-C levels deserves further exploration.

Modulation of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Multiplication, Apoptosis, and Inflammatory Damage by miR-21 in Coronary Heart Disease

This study is aimed at exploring the role and potential molecular mechanism of microRNA-21 (miR-21) in coronary heart disease (CHD). RT-qPCR analysis was conducted to detect the expression of miR-21, Sprouty 1 (SPRY1), and connexin 43 (CX43). The protein expression of SPRY1 and CX43 was measured by western blot. ELISA was performed for measuring inflammatory factors, including intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β). The target relationship between miR-21 and SPRY1 was determined by dual-luciferase reporter assay. Cell multiplication and apoptosis were detected using CCK-8 assay and flow cytometry analysis, respectively. Our results indicated that miR-21, CX43, and the level of inflammatory cytokines including ICAM-1 and IL-1β were upregulated, while SPRY1 was downregulated in blood samples from CHD patients compared with the controls. Besides, miR-21 directly targeted SRPY-1. miR-21 could suppress SPRY1 expression and enhance CX43 expression in VSMCs. Moreover, miR-21 accelerated cell multiplication and attenuated cell apoptosis in VSMCs. Collectively, these findings suggested that miR-21 could effectively elevate VSMC multiplication and repress apoptosis by targeting SPRY1 in CHD, providing a potential target for therapeutic strategy of CHD.

NR4A3: A Key Nuclear Receptor in Vascular Biology, Cardiovascular Remodeling, and Beyond

The mechanisms committed in the activation and response of vascular and inflammatory immune cells play a major role in tissue remodeling in cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) such as atherosclerosis, pulmonary arterial hypertension, and abdominal aortic aneurysm. Cardiovascular remodeling entails interrelated cellular processes (proliferation, survival/apoptosis, inflammation, extracellular matrix (ECM) synthesis/degradation, redox homeostasis, etc.) coordinately regulated by a reduced number of transcription factors. Nuclear receptors of the subfamily 4 group A (NR4A) have recently emerged as key master genes in multiple cellular processes and vital functions of different organs, and have been involved in a variety of high-incidence human pathologies including atherosclerosis and other CVDs. This paper reviews the major findings involving NR4A3 (Neuron-derived Orphan Receptor 1, NOR-1) in the cardiovascular remodeling operating in these diseases.

Roles of MicroRNAs in Peripheral Artery In-Stent Restenosis after Endovascular Treatment

Endovascular repair including percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA) and stent implantation has become the standard approach for the treatment of peripheral arterial disease; however, restenosis is still the main limited complication for the long-term success of the endovascular repair. Endothelial denudation and regeneration, inflammatory response, and neointimal hyperplasia are major pathological processes occurring during in-stent restenosis (ISR). MicroRNAs exhibit great potential in regulating several vascular biological events in different cell types and have been identified as novel therapeutic targets as well as biomarkers for ISR prevention. This review summarized recent experimental and clinical studies on the role of miRNAs in ISR modification, with the aim of unraveling the underlying mechanism and potential therapeutic strategy of ISR.

LINC00472 regulates vascular smooth muscle cell migration and proliferation via regulating miR-149-3p

LncRNAs are one group of gene modulators functioning via several mechanisms in pathological and physiological conditions. We noted that LINC00472 expression level is elevated in atherosclerotic coronary tissues compared with normal coronary artery samples. LINC00472 is also upregulated in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) induced by TNF-α and PDGF-BB. Ectopic expression of LINC00472 induced VSMC migration and proliferation. The predicted binding sequence between miR-149-3p and LINC00472 was analyzed by LncBase Predicted. Overexpression of miR-149-3p decreases the luciferase activity of wild-type reporter plasmid, but not the mutant one. Ectopic expression of LINC00472 suppresses the expression of miR-149-3p in VSMCs. Furthermore, we demonstrated that miR-149-3p expression is decreased in atherosclerotic coronary tissues. MiR-149-3p was downregulated in VSMCs induced by TNF-α and PDGF-BB. Overexpression of LINC00472 induces VSMC migration and proliferation via regulating miR-149-3p. These data suggested that LINC00472 acts a critical role in the migration and proliferation of VSMCs partly via modulating miR-149-3p.

Role of Selected miRNAs as Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers in Cardiovascular Diseases, Including Coronary Artery Disease, Myocardial Infarction and Atherosclerosis

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death worldwide in different cohorts. It is well known that miRNAs have a crucial role in regulating the development of cardiovascular physiology, thus impacting the pathophysiology of heart diseases. MiRNAs also have been reported to be associated with cardiac reactions, leading to myocardial infarction (MCI) and ultimately heart failure (HF). To prevent these heart diseases, proper and timely diagnosis of cardiac dysfunction is pivotal. Though there are many symptoms associated with an irregular heart condition and though there are some biomarkers available that may indicate heart disease, authentic, specific and sensitive markers are the need of the hour. In recent times, miRNAs have proven to be promising candidates in this regard. They are potent biomarkers as they can be easily detected in body fluids (blood, urine, etc.) due to their remarkable stability and presence in apoptotic bodies and exosomes. Existing studies suggest the role of miRNAs as valuable biomarkers. A single biomarker may be insufficient to diagnose coronary artery disease (CAD) or acute myocardial infarction (AMI); thus, a combination of different miRNAs may prove fruitful. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the role of circulating miRNA as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in cardiovascular diseases such as coronary artery disease (CAD), myocardial infarction (MI) and atherosclerosis.

MicroRNA-638 induces apoptosis and autophagy in human liver cancer cells by targeting enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2)

Liver cancer is of the devastating human cancers and its incidence is increasing at an alarming rate. The clinical outcomes are far from descent due to lack of efficient therapeutic targets and chemotherapeutic agents. Studies have revealed the therapeutic implications of microRNAs in the management of different human cancers. This study was designed to explore the role and therapeutic potential of miR-638 in liver cancer via modulation of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2). The results revealed significant (P < 0.05) downregulation of miR-638 in human liver cancer tissues and cell lines. Overexpression of miR-638 led to a significant (P < 0.05) decline in liver cancer cell proliferation. Nonetheless, inhibition of miR-638 could promote the proliferation of the human liver cancer cells. The DAPI and annexin V/PI staining assays revealed that miR-638 induces apoptosis in human liver cancer cells which was accompanied by enhancement of Bax and depletion of Bcl-2 expression. Furthermore, miR-638 overexpression also leads to a significant (P < 0.05) increase of autophagosomes and autolysosomes in liver cancer cells suggestive of autophagy. The induction of autophagy was further confirmed by increase and decrease in expression of LC3B-II and Beclin-1 proteins, respectively. In contrary, inhibition of miR-638 prevented both apoptosis and autophagy of the liver cancer cells. In silico analysis and the dual luciferase assay revealed EZH2 as the molecular target of miR-638 at post-transcriptional level. The qRT-PCR showed that EZH2 to be significantly (P < 0.05) upregulated in the human liver cancer tissues and cell lines. However, the expression of EZH2 was considerably suppressed upon miR-638 overexpression in SNU-423 cells. Taken together, these findings suggest the tumor-suppressive role of miR-638/EZH2 axis liver cancer and point towards the potential of miR-638 as therapeutic target in the treatment of liver cancer.

Platelet-derived microvesicles induce calcium oscillations and promote VSMC migration via TRPV4

Rationale: Abnormal migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) from the media to the interior is a critical process during the intimal restenosis caused by vascular injury. Here, we determined the role of platelet-derived microvesicles (PMVs) released by activated platelets in VSMC migration. Methods: A percutaneous transluminal angioplasty balloon dilatation catheter was used to establish vascular intimal injury. Collagen I was used to activate PMVs, mimicking collagen exposure during intimal injury. To determine the effects of PMVs on VSMC migration in vitro, scratch wound healing assays were performed. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer was used to detect variations of calcium dynamics in VSMCs. Results: Morphological results showed that neointimal hyperplasia was markedly increased after balloon injury of the carotid artery in rats, and the main component was VSMCs. PMVs significantly promoted single cell migration and wound closure in vitro. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer revealed that PMVs induced temporal and dynamic calcium oscillations in the cytoplasms of VSMCs. The influx of extracellular calcium, but not calcium from intracellular stores, was involved in the process described above. The channel antagonist GSK219 and specific siRNA revealed that a membrane calcium channel, transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4), participated in the calcium oscillations and VSMC migration induced by PMVs. Conclusions: TRPV4 participated in the calcium oscillations and VSMC migration induced by PMVs. PMVs and the related molecules might be novel therapeutic targets for vascular remodeling during vascular injury.

The c.*52 A/G and c.*773 A/G Genetic Variants in the UTR'3 of the LDLR Gene Are Associated with the Risk of Acute Coronary Syndrome and Lower Plasma HDL-Cholesterol Concentration

Dyslipidemia has a substantial role in the development of acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) plays a critical role in plasma lipoprotein hemostasis, which is involved in the formation of atherosclerotic plaque. This study aimed to evaluate whether LDLR gene polymorphisms are significantly associated with ACS and the plasma lipids profile. Three LDLR gene polymorphisms located in the UTR′3 region (c.*52 A/G, c.*504 A/G, and c.* 773 A/G) were determined using TaqMan genotyping assays in a group of 618 ACS patients and 666 healthy controls. Plasma lipids profile concentrations were determined by enzymatic/colorimetric assays. Under co-dominant and recessive models, the c.*52 A allele of the c.*52 A/G polymorphism was associated with a higher risk of ACS (OR = 2.02, pC_Co-dom = 0.033, and OR = 2.00, pC_Res = 0.009, respectively). In the same way, under co-dominant and recessive models, the c.*773 G allele of the c.*773 A/G polymorphism was associated with a high risk of ACS (OR = 2.04, pC_Co-dom = 0.027, and OR = 2.01, pC_Res = 0.007, respectively). The “AAG” haplotype was associated with a high risk of ACS (OR = 1.22, pC = 0.016). The c.*52 AA genotype showed a lower HDL-C concentration than individuals with the GG genotype. In addition, carriers of c.*773 GG genotype carriers had a lower concentration of the high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) than subjects with the AA genotype. Our data suggest the association of the LDLRc.*773 A/G and LDLR c.*52 A/G polymorphisms with both the risk of developing ACS and with a lower concentration of HDL-C in the study population.

HIX003209 promotes vascular smooth muscle cell migration and proliferation through modulating miR-6089

Accumulating references have showed that long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) act important roles in the development of human diseases. The role and expression of HIX003209 remains unclear in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. We showed that HIX003209 expression was upregulated in atherosclerotic coronary tissues compared to normal coronary artery samples. HIX003209 was overexpressed in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) induced by inflammatory mediators including tumor necrosis factor-α(TNF-α), ox-LDL and latelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB). Ectopic expression of HIX003209 enhanced cell growth and migration and induced inflammatory mediators secretion such as interleukin 6 (IL-6), TNF-α and IL-1β in VSMCs. Furthermore, we showed that miR-6089 was downregulated in atherosclerotic coronary tissues compared to normal coronary artery samples. There was a negative association between expression of HIX003209 and miR-6089 in atherosclerotic coronary tissues. MiR-6089 expression was decreased in VSMCs induced by inflammatory mediators including TNF-α, ox-LDL and PDGF-BB. Dual luciferase analysis showed that miR-6089 overexpression decreased luciferase activity of HIX003209 WT-type 3’-UTR but not the mut-type 3’-UTR. Overexpression of HIX003209 suppressed the expression of miR-6089 in VSMCs. Ectopic expression of HIX003209 induced cell growth, migration and the secretion of inflammatory mediators via regulating miR-6089 expression. These data suggested that HIX003209 promoted VSMCs proliferation, migration and the secretion of inflammatory mediators partly via regulating miR-6089.

miR‑106b‑5p modulates acute pulmonary embolism via NOR1 in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells

Acute pulmonary embolism (APE) is a common cause of acute cardiovascular failure and has a high morbidity and mortality rate. Inhibiting the excessive proliferation and migration of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) is a potential treatment strategy following an APE. Various microRNAs (miRNAs/miRs) have been shown to regulate cell proliferation, apoptosis and other physiological processes. However, the specific mechanisms underlying the action of multiple miRNAs are still not understood in APE. In the present study, the role of miR‑106b‑5p on APE was demonstrated in platelet‑derived growth factor (PDGF)‑induced PASMCs in vitro and in an APE‑mouse model in vivo. The results showed that miR‑106b‑5p expression was downregulated in PDGF‑induced PASMCs and APE mice, and NOR1 levels were upregulated. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression levels in cells and proliferation of PASMCs proliferation and migration were reduced following treatment with miR‑106b‑5p agomiR, and increased following treatment with miR‑106b‑5p antagomiR. miR‑106b‑5p targeted the 3' untranslated region of NOR‑1 mRNA and reduced NOR1 expression. NOR1 overexpression reversed the effects of miR‑106‑5p on PDGF‑induced PASMCs. The functional roles of miR‑106b‑5p in PDGF‑induced PASMCs and an APE mouse‑model, and the underlying molecular mechanisms were evaluated. AgomiR‑106b‑5p improved APE‑induced mortality and pulmonary vascular proliferation in mice. These data suggest that miR‑106‑5p is a novel regulator of proliferation of PASMCs and of pulmonary vascular remodeling through PDGF‑induced PASMCs in an APE mouse model via targeting NOR1. These results expand the understanding of the pathogenesis underlying APE and highlight potential novel therapeutic targets.

Resveratrol prevented experimental pulmonary vascular remodeling via miR-638 regulating NR4A3/cyclin D1 pathway

OBJECTIVE

Resveratrol has shown benefit for pulmonary hypertension improvement. Our previous reports showed NR4A3/cyclin D1 pathway promoted pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) proliferation. This study tried to explore the mechanism underlying this process, focusing on the role of resveratrol in regulation of miRNA and NR4A3.

METHODS

Rats were injected with monocrotaline (MCT) to establish pulmonary hypertension (PH) models. Resveratrol was used to prevent pulmonary vascular remodeling. Primary rat PASMCs were cultured in vitro and stimulated by platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) with or without resveratrol. Cells proliferation and expression of miR-638 as well as NR4A3 were evaluated.

RESULTS

MCT resulted in significant pulmonary vascular remodeling and down-regulation of miR-638, which could be suppressed by resveratrol. Moreover, PDGF-induced PASMC proliferation and miR-638 down-regulation were both significantly prevented by resveratrol treatment in vitro. MiR-638 mimics markedly inhibited PASMC proliferation and percentage of PCNA-positive cells in vitro. But anti-miR-638 could markedly promote cells proliferation and percentage of PCNA-positive cells. The luciferase reporter assay showed that NR4A3 was a direct target of miR-638. The loss-of-function and gain-of-function experiments indicated that NR4A3 promoted proliferation via cyclin D1 pathway.

CONCLUSION

Our data indicated that resveratrol prevented MCT-induced pulmonary vascular remodeling via miR-638 regulating NR4A3/cyclin D1 pathway.

MiR-638 Repressed Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Glycolysis by Targeting LDHA

Background

Abnormal proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) accelerated vascular diseases progression, like atherosclerosis and restenosis. MicroRNAs were reported to participate in modulating diverse cellular processes. Here, we focused on exploring the role of miR-638 in VSMCs glycolysis and underlying mechanism.

Methods

Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay was used to measure cell viability. Western blot assay was conducted to determine the expression of cell proliferation markers proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and Ki-67, as well as Lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA). VSMCs migration and invasion were evaluated by Transwell assay. Luciferase reporter gene assay and RNA immunoprecipitation were performed to validate the target relationship between miR-638 and LDHA. LDHA and miR-638 expression were also determined. Glycolysis of VSMCs was tested by corresponding Kits.

Results

Platelet-derived growth factor-bb (PDGF-bb) promoted the VSMCs viability and down-regulated miR-638. Overexpression of miR-638 inhibited cell proliferation, migration and invasion of VSMCs. LDHA was identified as a target of miR-638, and counter-regulated by miR-638. Loss of miR-638 attenuated the suppressor effects on the proliferation, migration and invasion of VSMCs induced by LDHA down-regulation. MiR-638 inhibited the glycolysis of VSMCs by targeting LDHA.

Conclusion

MiR-638 is down-regulated by PDGF-bb treatment and suppressed the glycolysis of VSMCs via targeting LDHA.

Association between low levels of serum miR-638 and atherosclerotic plaque vulnerability in patients with high-grade carotid stenosis

OBJECTIVE

Carotid artery atherosclerosis is a major cause of ischemic stroke. However, reliable criteria to identify patients with high-risk carotid plaques beyond the severity of stenosis are still lacking. Circulating microRNAs (miRNAs) are being postulated as biomarkers for a variety of vascular immune-inflammatory diseases. The authors investigated whether cell-free circulating miR-638, highly expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells and implicated in proliferative vascular diseases, is associated with vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques in high-risk patients with advanced carotid artery stenosis undergoing carotid endarterectomy (CEA).

METHODS

The authors conducted a prospective study in 22 consecutive symptomatic patients with high-grade carotid stenosis undergoing CEA and 36 age- and sex-matched patients without ischemic stroke history or carotid atherosclerosis (control group). In addition, they reviewed data from a historical group of 9 CEA patients who underwent long-term follow-up after revascularization. Total RNA was isolated from all serum samples, and relative miR-638 expression levels were detected by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and compared among groups. A correlation analysis of serum miR-638 levels with vascular risk factors and treatments, and with plaque features, was performed. The ability of serum miR-638 to discriminate between the non-CEA control group and the different CEA groups was assessed by receiver operating characteristic evaluation. A logistic regression model was employed to examine the association between stratified CEA patients and serum miR-638 levels.

RESULTS

Serum levels of miR-638 were significantly lower in symptomatic CEA patients (p = 0.009) and particularly in the subgroup of CEA patients who had experienced stroke (p = 0.0006) than in non-CEA controls. Discrimination of high-risk plaques was accurate (area under the curve [AUC] 0.66 for symptomatic CEA patients in general and 0.76 for those who had experienced stroke). When only patients with high cardiovascular risk were considered, the diagnostic value of serum miR-638 from symptomatic CEA patients and CEA patients who had experienced stroke improved (AUC 0.79 and 0.85). Moreover, serum miR-638 was negatively correlated with the occurrence of stroke, smoker status, presence of bilateral pathology, coronary artery disease, and cholesterol treatment; and with the high-risk fibroatheroma plaques extracted from CEA patients. Multivariate logistic regression analysis demonstrated that serum miR-638 was an independent predictor of plaque instability. Furthermore, serum miR-638 appeared to attain good discrimination for atherosclerotic stenosis in CEA patients based on analysis of blood samples obtained in the historical group before and 5 years after intervention (p = 0.04) (AUC = 0.79).

CONCLUSIONS

According to this preliminary proof-of-concept study, serum miR-638 might constitute a promising noninvasive biomarker associated with plaque vulnerability and ischemic stroke, particularly in individuals with elevated cardiovascular risk.

Long noncoding RNA LINC00968 promotes endothelial cell proliferation and migration via regulating miR-9-3p expression

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been showed to play a crucial role in pathogenesis and development of cardiovascular diseases. Our study aimed to study the expression and functional role of lncRNA LINC00968 in the development of coronary artery disease (CAD). We showed that the LINC00968 expression level was upregulated in the CAD tissues compared with normal arterial tissues. In addition, we showed that the expression level of LINC00968 was upregulated by oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) treatment in endothelial cell. Ectopic expression of LINC00968 regulated the proliferation and migration of endothelial cell. Moreover, we showed that overexpression of LINC00968 inhibited miR-9-3p expression in an endothelial cell. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the miR-9-3p expression was downregulated in the CAD samples compared with normal arterial tissues and the expression level of miR-9-3p was downregulated by oxLDL treatment in endothelial cell. Finally, we showed that ectopic expression of LINC00968 promoted endothelial cell proliferation and migration partly through regulating miR-9-3p expression. These results suggested that LINC00968 plays a crucial role in the progression of the CAD.

miR-107 inhibits PDGF-BB-induced proliferation of human pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells and migration through targeting NOR1

BACKGROUND

Abnormal proliferation of PASMCs is the main phenotype of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). MicroRNAs (miRNAs) were reported to participate in regulating the progression of PAH. Here, we aimed to investigate the impact of miR-107 on proliferation and migration of PASMCs and potential mechanism.

METHODS

MTT assay was carried out to examine the cell viability of PASMCs. PASMC migration ability was verified through Transwell assay. RT-qPCR was performed to detect the expression of miR-107 and NOR1. Western blot was conducted to detect the expression of cell proliferation markers Ki-67, p27 and Cyclin D1, as well as NOR1. Bioinformatics analysis was conducted to verify whether the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of NOR1 contains a binding site for miR-107, and luciferase reporter assay and RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) were employed to confirm the relationship between miR-107 and NOR1.

RESULTS

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB promoted the cell viability and migration of PASMCs, and suppressed miR-107 expression in a time-dependent and concentration-dependent manner. Introduction of miR-107 inhibited the promotion of proliferation and migration of PASMCs stimulated by PDGF-BB, while loss of miR-107 facilitated PDGF-BB-induced promoted effects. NOR1 was identified as a downstream gene of miR-107 and down-regulated by miR-107. Knockout of NOR1 also repressed the promotion of proliferation and migration of PASMCs stimulated by PDGF-BB. Additionally, restoration of NOR1 attenuated the inhibition of miR-107 on the cell viability and migration ability of PASMCs.

CONCLUSION

miR-107 inhibits PDGF-BB-induced PASMCs proliferation and migration through targeting NOR1.

MicroRNA-638 expression change in osteosarcoma patients via PLD1 and VEGF expression

The present study aimed to investigate the function and mechanism of microRNA-638 (miR-638) in osteosarcoma. MiR-638 expression change in patients with osteosarcoma was detected by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Expression of miR-638 was observed to be downregulated in patients with osteosarcoma compared with the control group. In vitro, overexpression of miR-638 induced apoptosis, and inhibited cell proliferation and invasion of osteosarcoma cells. Overexpression of miR-638 induced Bcl-2 associated X and caspase-3 protein expression, and suppressed cyclin D1, phospholipase D1 (PLD1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) protein expression in osteosarcoma. The promotion of PLD1 decreased the effects of miR-638 on osteosarcoma cell proliferation. In summary, it was demonstrated that miRNA-638 expression change in patients with osteosarcoma and an in vitro model via PLD1 and VEGF expression and miRNA-638 may be potential clinical indicators of osteosarcoma.

Hypoxia-Regulated miRNAs in Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells: Exploring the Regulatory Effects in Ischemic Disorders

Human mesenchymal/stromal stem cells (hMSC) are the most promising cell source for adult cell therapies in regenerative medicine. Many clinical trials have reported the use of autologous transplantation of hMSCs in several disorders, but with limited results. To exert their potential, hMSCs could exhibit efficient homing and migration toward lesion sites among other effects, but the underlying process is not clear enough. To further increase the knowledge, we studied the co-regulation between hypoxia-regulated genes and miRNAs. To this end, we investigated the miRNA expression profile of healthy hMSCs in low oxygen/nutrient conditions to mimic ischemia and compared with cells of patients suffering from critical limb ischemia (CLI). miRNAs are small, highly conserved, non-coding RNAs, skilled in the control of the target’s expression level in a fine-tuned way. After analyzing the miRNOme in CLI-derived hMSC cells and healthy controls, and intersecting the results with the mRNA expression dataset under hypoxic conditions, we identified two miRNAs potentially relevant to the disease: miR-29b as a pathological marker of the disease and miR-638 as a therapeutic target. This study yielded a deeper understanding of stem cell biology and ischemic disorders, opening new potential treatments in the future.

The microRNAs Regulating Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation: A Minireview

Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation plays a critical role in atherosclerosis. At the beginning of the pathologic process of atherosclerosis, irregular VSMC proliferation promotes plaque formation, but in advanced plaques VSMCs are beneficial, promoting the stability and preventing rupture of the fibrous cap. Recent studies have demonstrated that microRNAs (miRNAs) expressed in the vascular system are involved in the control of VSMC proliferation. This review summarizes recent findings on the miRNAs in the regulation of VSMC proliferation, including miRNAs that exhibit the inhibition or promotion of VSMC proliferation, and their targets mediating the regulation of VSMC proliferation. Up to now, most of the studies were performed only in cultured VSMC. While the modulation of miRNAs is emerging as a promising strategy for the regulation of VSMC proliferation, most of the effects of miRNAs and their targets in vivo require further investigation.

PDGFBB promotes proliferation and migration via regulating miR-1181/STAT3 axis in human pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) can induce hyperproliferation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs), which is a key causative factor to the occurrence and progression of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). We previously identified that miR-1181 is significantly downregulated by PDGFBB in human PASMCs. In this work, we further explore the function of miR-1181 and underlying regulatory mechanisms in PDGF-induced PASMCs. First, the expression pattern of miR-1181 was characterized under PDGFBB treatment, and PDGF receptor/PKCβ signaling was found to repress miR-1181 expression. Then, gain- and loss-of-function experiments were respectively conducted and revealed the prominent role of miR-1181 in inhibiting PASMC proliferation and migration. Flow cytometry analysis suggested that miR-1181 regulated the PASMC proliferation through influencing the cell cycle transition from G0/G1 to S phase. Moreover, we exhibited that miR-1181 targeting STAT3 formed a regulatory axis to modulate PASMC proliferation. Finally, serum miR-1181 expression was also observed to be reduced in adult and newborn patients with PAH. Overall, this study provides novel findings that the miR-1181/STAT3 axis mediated PDGFBB-induced dysfunction in human PASMCs, implying a potential use of miR-1181 as a therapeutic and diagnostic candidate for the vascular remodeling diseases.

MicroRNA-638 inhibits human airway smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration through targeting cyclin D1 and NOR1

Abnormal airway smooth muscle cell (ASMC) proliferation and migration contribute significantly to increased ASM mass associated with asthma. MicroRNA (miR)-638 is a primate-specific miRNA that plays important roles in development, DNA damage repair, hematopoiesis, and tumorigenesis. Although it is highly expressed in ASMCs, its function in ASM remodeling remains unknown. In the current study, we found that in response to various mitogenic stimuli, including platelet-derived growth factor-two B chains (PDGF-BB), transforming growth factor β1, and fetal bovine serum, the expression of miR-638, as determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), was significantly downregulated in the proliferative human ASMCs. Both gain- and loss-of-function studies were performed to study the role of miR-638 in ASMC proliferation and migration. We found that adenovirus-mediated miR-638 overexpression markedly inhibits ASMC proliferation and migration, while ablation of miR-638 by anti-miR-638 markedly increases cell proliferation and migration, as determined by WST-8 proliferation and scratch wound assays. Dual-luciferase reporter assay, qRT-PCR, and immunoblot analysis were used to investigate the effects of miR-638 on the expression of the downstream target genes in ASMCs. Our results demonstrated that miR-638 overexpression significantly reduced the expression of downstream target cyclin D1 and NOR1, both of which have been shown to be essential for cell proliferation and migration. Together, our study provides the first in vitro evidence highlighting the antiproliferative and antimigratory roles of miR-638 in human ASMC remodeling and suggests that targeted overexpression of miR-638 in ASMCs may provide a novel therapeutic strategy for preventing ASM hyperplasia associated with asthma.

miRNAs regulate acute transcriptional changes in broiler embryos in response to modification of incubation temperature

MicroRNAs are post-transcriptional regulators that play critical roles in diverse biological processes. We hypothesize that miRNAs may be involved in regulating transcriptome responses to changes in embryonic incubation temperature in chickens affecting differentiation and proliferation processes during tissue development. Therefore, we conducted comparative transcriptome profiling of miRNAs to examine altered expression in breast and hind muscle of embryos and day 35 chickens experiencing high (38.8 °C), control (37.8 °C), or low (36.8 °C) embryonic incubation temperature during embryonic day (ED) 7–10 or ED10–13. The results revealed differential expression of miRNAs due to modification of embryonic incubation temperature in a muscle type-specific and a developmental stage-specific manner. The immediate effects of thermal change observed in embryos were substantial compared to the subtle long-term effects in chickens at day 35 post-hatch. Upregulation of miR-133 in breast muscle and downregulation of miR-199a-5p, miR-1915, and miR-638 in hind muscle post ED7–10 high-temperature treatment are functionally associated with myogenesis and body size. ED10–13 low-temperature treatment led to downregulation of let-7, miR-93, and miR-130c that are related to proliferation and differentiation. The results provide insight into the dynamics of miRNA expression at variable embryonic incubation temperatures during developmental processes and indicate a major regulatory role of miRNAs in acute responses to modified environmental conditions that affect remodelling of cells and tissues.

Evaluation of the rs3088442 G>A SLC22A3 Gene Polymorphism and the Role of microRNA 147 in Groups of Adult Pakistani Populations With Type 2 Diabetes in Response to Metformin

OBJECTIVES

Type 2 diabetes is a complex genetic disorder, and a large number of genetic polymorphisms may be involved in its pathogenesis. Pharmacologically, type 2 diabetes can be treated with 9 different approved classes of drugs, but metformin is suggested as the first line of therapy, followed by sulfonylureas.

METHODS

This was a case-control study consisting of 300 metformin responders and 300 metformin nonresponders in patients with type 2 diabetes and 300 healthy Pakistani subjects. Genotyping of the SLC22A3 G>A polymorphism was performed by allele-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for microRNA 147 expression; real-time polymerase chain reaction was used, and expressional analysis of SLC22A3 was done by semiquantitative polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

GA and AA genotypes were highly significantly associated with the drug treatments when compared with controls. A statistically significant difference was observed in the distribution of the SLC22A3 A allele between healthy subjects and patients with type 2 diabetes. When odds ratios were adjusted for glycated hemoglobin levels and postprandial and fasting blood glucose levels, our findings showed that the overexpression of allele A of the rs3088442 G>A variant may act as a protective allele and is associated with the clinical response to metformin. microRNA 147 expression was found to be increased in patients who were metformin responders compared with the nonresponder group and controls. mRNA expression of SLC22A3 was significantly reduced in patients taking metformin as compared to other groups.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggested that the SLC22A3 rs3088442 at position 2282 A allele may confer metformin clinical responses in patients with type 2 diabetes in the Pakistani population. Overexpression of microRNA 147 is associated with a downward expression of the SLC22A3 gene in patients who have type 2 diabetes.

GLP-1 Receptor Agonist Exendin-4 Attenuates NR4A Orphan Nuclear Receptor NOR1 Expression in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells

AIMS

Recently, incretin therapy has attracted increasing attention because of its potential use in tissue-protective therapy. Neuron-derived orphan receptor 1 (NOR1) is a nuclear orphan receptor that regulates vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation. In the present study, we investigated the vascular-protective effect of Exendin-4 (Ex-4), a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, by inhibiting NOR1 expression in VSMCs.

METHODS

We classified 7-week-old male 129X1/SvJ mice into control group and Ex-4 low- and high-dose-treated groups fed normal or high-fat diets, respectively. Endothelial denudation injuries were induced in the femoral artery at 8 weeks of age, followed by the evaluation of neointima formation at 12 weeks of age. To evaluate VSMC proliferation, bromodeoxyuridine incorporation assay and cell cycle distribution analysis were performed. NOR1 and cell cycle regulators were detected using immunohistochemistry, western blotting, quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction, and luciferase assays.

RESULTS

Ex-4 treatment reduced vascular injury-induced neointima formation compared with controls. In terms of VSMCs occupying the neointima area, VSMC numbers and NOR1-expressing proliferative cells were significantly decreased by Ex-4 in a dose-dependent manner in both diabetic and non-diabetic mice. In vitro experiments using primary cultured VSMCs revealed that Ex-4 attenuated NOR1 expression by reducing extracellular signal-regulated kinase-mitogen-activated protein kinase and cAMP-responsive element-binding protein phosphorylations. Furthermore, in the cell cycle distribution analysis, serum-induced G1-S phase entry was significantly attenuated by Ex-4 treatment of VSMCs by inhibiting the induction of S-phase kinase-associated protein 2.

CONCLUSION

Ex-4 attenuates neointima formation after vascular injury and VSMC proliferation possibly by inhibiting NOR1 expression.

MiR-339 inhibits proliferation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell by targeting FGF signaling

Pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH) is a fatal disorder. Recent studies suggest that microRNA (miRNA) plays an important role in regulating proliferation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMC), which underlies the pathology of PAH. However, the exact mechanism of action of miRNAs remains elusive. In this study, we found that miR‐339 was highly expressed in the cardiovascular system and was downregulated by a group of cytokines and growth factors, especially PDGF‐BB and FGF2. Functional analyses revealed that miR‐339 can inhibit proliferation of PASMC. Also, miR‐339 inhibited FGF2‐induced proliferation, but had no effect on proliferation induced by PDGF‐BB. The fibroblast growth factor receptor substrate 2 (FRS2) was identified as a potential direct target of miR‐339. Consistent with the actions of miR‐339, knockdown of FRS2 only inhibited FGF2‐ but not PDGF‐BB‐induced proliferation of PASMC. In addition, our results showed that inhibition of ERK and PI3K abrogated the downregulation of miR‐339 induced by PDGF‐BB. Finally, miR‐339 expression was found to be decreased in the pulmonary arteries of rats with MCT‐induced PAH. Our study is the first report on the biological role of miR‐339 in regulating proliferation of PASMC by targeting FGF signaling, providing new mechanistic insights into PASMC proliferation and pathogenesis of PAH.

Understanding the role of non-coding RNA (ncRNA) in stent restenosis

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is one of the leading disorders with the highest mortality rate. Percutaneous angioplasty and stent implantation are the currently available standard methods for the treatment of obstructive coronary artery disease. However, the stent being an exogenous substance causes several complications by promoting the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells, immune responses and neointima formation after implantation, leading to post-stent restenosis (ISR) and late thrombosis. The prevention of these adverse vascular events is important to achieve long-term proper functioning of the heart after stent implantation. Non-coding ribonucleic acids (ncRNAs) are RNA molecules not translated into proteins, theyhave a great potential in regulating endothelial cell and vascular smooth muscle function as well as inflammatory reactions. In this review, we outline the regulatory functions of different classes of ncRNA in cardiovascular disease and propose ncRNAs as new targets for stent restonosis treatment.

Epigenetics in Ascending Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm and Dissection

Thoracic aortic aneurysm (TAA) is an asymptomatic and progressive dilatation of the thoracic aorta. Ascending aortic dissection (AAD) is an acute intraparietal tear, occurring or not on a pre-existing dilatation. AAD is a condition associated with a poor prognosis and a high mortality rate. TAA and AAD share common etiology as monogenic diseases linked to transforming growth factor β signaling pathway, extracellular matrix defect, or smooth muscle cell protein mutations. They feature a complex pathogenesis including loss of smooth muscle cells, altered phenotype, and extracellular matrix degradation in aortic media layer. A better knowledge of the mechanisms responsible for TAA progression and AAD occurrence is needed to improve healthcare, nowadays mainly consisting of aortic open surgery or endovascular replacement. Recent breakthrough discoveries allowed a deeper characterization of the mechanisms of gene regulation. Since alteration in gene expression has been linked to TAA and AAD, it is conceivable that a better knowledge of the causes of this alteration may lead to novel theranostic approaches. In this review article, the authors will focus on epigenetic regulation of gene expression, including the role of histone methylation and acetylation, deoxyribonucleic acid methylation, and noncoding ribonucleic acids in the pathogenesis of TAA and AAD. They will provide a translational perspective, presenting recent data that motivate the evaluation of the potential of epigenetics to diagnose TAA and prevent AAD.

Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Markers

Cardiovascular risk is assessed for the prediction and appropriate management of patients using collections of identified risk markers obtained from clinical questionnaire information, concentrations of certain blood molecules (e.g., N-terminal proB-type natriuretic peptide fragment and soluble receptors of tumor-necrosis factor-α and interleukin-2), imaging data using various modalities, and electrocardiographic variables, in addition to traditional risk factors.

miR-22 Is a Novel Mediator of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Phenotypic Modulation and Neointima Formation

Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text.

Background:

MicroRNA-22 (miR-22) has recently been reported to play a regulatory role during vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) differentiation from stem cells, but little is known about its target genes and related pathways in mature VSMC phenotypic modulation or its clinical implication in neointima formation following vascular injury.

Methods:

We applied a wire-injury mouse model, and local delivery of AgomiR-22 or miR-22 inhibitor, as well, to explore the therapeutic potential of miR-22 in vascular diseases. Furthermore, normal and diseased human femoral arteries were harvested, and various in vivo, ex vivo, and in vitro models of VSMC phenotype switching were conducted to examine miR-22 expression during VSMC phenotype switching.

Results:

Expression of miR-22 was closely regulated during VSMC phenotypic modulation. miR-22 overexpression significantly increased expression of VSMC marker genes and inhibited VSMC proliferation and migration, whereas the opposite effect was observed when endogenous miR-22 was knocked down. As expected, 2 previously reported miR-22 target genes, MECP2 (methyl-CpG binding protein 2) and histone deacetylase 4, exhibited a regulatory role in VSMC phenotypic modulation. A transcriptional regulator and oncoprotein, EVI1 (ecotropic virus integration site 1 protein homolog), has been identified as a novel miR-22 target gene in VSMC phenotypic modulation. It is noteworthy that overexpression of miR-22 in the injured vessels significantly reduced the expression of its target genes, decreased VSMC proliferation, and inhibited neointima formation in wire-injured femoral arteries, whereas the opposite effect was observed with local application of a miR-22 inhibitor to injured arteries. We next examined the clinical relevance of miR-22 expression and its target genes in human femoral arteries. We found that miR-22 expression was significantly reduced, whereas MECP2 and EVI1 expression levels were dramatically increased, in diseased in comparison with healthy femoral human arteries. This inverse relationship between miR-22 and MECP2 and EVI1 was evident in both healthy and diseased human femoral arteries.

Conclusions:

Our data demonstrate that miR-22 and EVI1 are novel regulators of VSMC function, specifically during neointima hyperplasia, offering a novel therapeutic opportunity for treating vascular diseases.

The Role of MicroRNAs in Arterial Stiffness and Arterial Calcification. An Update and Review of the Literature

Arterial stiffness is an independent risk factor for fatal and non-fatal cardiovascular events, such as systolic hypertension, coronary artery disease, stroke, and heart failure. Moreover it reflects arterial aging which in many cases does not coincide with chronological aging, a fact that is in large attributed to genetic factors. In addition to genetic factors, microRNAs (miRNAs) seem to largely affect arterial aging either by advancing or by regressing arterial stiffness. MiRNAs are small RNA molecules, ~22 nucleotides long that can negatively control their target gene expression posttranscriptionally. Pathways that affect main components of stiffness such as fibrosis and calcification seem to be influenced by up or downregulation of specific miRNAs. Identification of this aberrant production of miRNAs can help identify epigenetic changes that can be therapeutic targets for prevention and treatment of vascular diseases. The present review summarizes the specific role of the so far discovered miRNAs that are involved in pathways of arterial stiffness.