SAGE: a comprehensive resource of genetic variants integrating South Asian whole genomes and exomes

Mutation profile of Bardet-Biedl syndrome patients from India: Implicative role of multiallelic rare variants and oligogenic inheritance pattern

Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS), a rare primary form of ciliopathy, with heterogeneous clinical and genetic presentation is characterized by rod cone dystrophy, obesity, polydactyly, urogenital abnormalities, and cognitive impairment. Here, we delineate the genetic profile in a cohort of 108 BBS patients from India by targeted gene sequencing-based approach for a panel of ciliopathy (including BBS) and other inherited retinal disease genes. We report here a higher frequency of BBS10 and BBS1 gene variations. A different spectrum of variations including a putatively novel gene TSPOAP1, for BBS was identified. Increased percentage frequency of digenic variants (36%) in the disease cohort, role of modifiers in familial cases are some of the salient observations in this work. This study appends the knowledge of BBS genetics pertaining to patients from India. We observed a different molecular epidemiology of BBS patients in this study cohort compared to other reports, which emphasizes the need for molecular testing in affected patients.

Exploring the genetic landscape of diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis vaccination-associated seizures or subsequent epilepsies

Background

Diphtheria, Tetanus, and whole-cell Pertussis (DTwP) vaccination-associated seizures form the commonest type of serious adverse event following immunization in India and are an important reason for vaccine hesitancy. Our study explored the genetic explanation of DTwP vaccination-associated seizures or subsequent epilepsies.

Methods

Between March 2017 and March 2019, we screened 67 children with DTwP vaccination-associated seizures or subsequent epilepsies, and of those, we studied 54 without prior seizures or neurodevelopmental deficits. Our study design was cross-sectional with a 1-year follow-up having both retrospective and prospective cases. We performed clinical exome sequencing focused on 157 epilepsy-associated genes and multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification of the SCN1A gene at enrolment. We applied the Vineland Social Maturity Scale for neurodevelopmental assessment at follow-up.

Findings

Of 54 children enrolled and underwent genetic testing (median age 37.5 months, interquartile range 7.7-67.2; diagnosis at enrolment: epilepsy 29, febrile seizure 21, and febrile seizure-plus 4), we found 33 pathogenic variants of 12 genes. Of 33 variants, 13 (39%) were novel. Most pathogenic variants were found in SCN1A gene (n = 21/33; 64%), SCN8A in 2 children, and 10 children had one variant in CDKL5, DEPDC5, GNAO1, KCNA2, KCNT1, KCNQ2, NPRL3, PCDH19, RHOBTB2, and SLC2A1. Five or more seizures (odds ratio [OR] = 5.3, confidence interval [CI]: 1.6-18.4, p = 0.006), drug-resistant epilepsy (OR = 9.8, 95% CI: 2.6-30.7, p = 0.001) and neurodevelopmental impairment (social quotient < 70) (OR = 5.6, 95% CI: 1.65-17.6, p = 0.006) were significant predictors of genetic diagnosis.

Interpretation

Our study provides proof-of-concept for genetic aetiology in children with DTwP vaccination-associated seizures or subsequent epilepsies and has important implications for vaccination policies in developing countries.

Funding

International Pediatric Association Foundation, Inc. (IPAF): İhsan Doğramaci research award 2016/2017; Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), New Delhi, India: No.3/1/3/JRF-2016/HRD/LS/71/10940.

Genomic data integration and user-defined sample-set extraction for population variant analysis

BACKGROUND

Population variant analysis is of great importance for gathering insights into the links between human genotype and phenotype. The 1000 Genomes Project established a valuable reference for human genetic variation; however, the integrative use of the corresponding data with other datasets within existing repositories and pipelines is not fully supported. Particularly, there is a pressing need for flexible and fast selection of population partitions based on their variant and metadata-related characteristics.

RESULTS

Here, we target general germline or somatic mutation data sources for their seamless inclusion within an interoperable-format repository, supporting integration among them and with other genomic data, as well as their integrated use within bioinformatic workflows. In addition, we provide VarSum, a data summarization service working on sub-populations of interest selected using filters on population metadata and/or variant characteristics. The service is developed as an optimized computational framework with an Application Programming Interface (API) that can be called from within any existing computing pipeline or programming script. Provided example use cases of biological interest show the relevance, power and ease of use of the API functionalities.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed data integration pipeline and data set extraction and summarization API pave the way for solid computational infrastructures that quickly process cumbersome variation data, and allow biologists and bioinformaticians to easily perform scalable analysis on user-defined partitions of large cohorts from increasingly available genetic variation studies. With the current tendency to large (cross)nation-wide sequencing and variation initiatives, we expect an ever growing need for the kind of computational support hereby proposed.

Genetics of Chronic Kidney Disease in Low-Resource Settings

Advances in kidney genomics in the past 20 years has opened the door for more precise diagnosis of kidney disease and identification of new and specific therapeutic agents. Despite these advances, an imbalance exists between low-resource and affluent regions of the world. Individuals of European ancestry from the United States, United Kingdom, and Iceland account for 16% of the world's population, but represent more than 80% of all genome-wide association studies. South Asia, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and Africa together account for 57% of the world population but less than 5% of genome-wide association studies. Implications of this difference include limitations in new variant discovery, inaccurate interpretation of the effect of genetic variants in non-European populations, and unequal access to genomic testing and novel therapies in resource-poor regions. It also further introduces ethical, legal, and social pitfalls, and ultimately may propagate global health inequities. Ongoing efforts to reduce the imbalance in low-resource regions include funding and capacity building, population-based genome sequencing, population-based genome registries, and genetic research networks. More funding, training, and capacity building for infrastructure and expertise is needed in resource-poor regions. Focusing on this will ensure multiple-fold returns on investments in genomic research and technology.

Whole exome sequencing of pediatric leukemia reveals a novel InDel within FLT-3 gene in AML patient from Mizo tribal population, Northeast India

Background

Leukemia is the most common type of cancer in pediatrics. Genomic mutations contribute towards the molecular mechanism of disease progression and also helps in diagnosis and prognosis. This is the first scientific mutational exploration in whole exome of pediatric leukemia patients from a cancer prone endogamous Mizo tribal population, Northeast India.

Result

Three non-synonymous exonic variants in NOTCH1 (p.V1699E), MUTYH (p.G143E) and PTPN11 (p.S502P) were found to be pathogenic. A novel in-frame insertion-deletion within the juxtamembrane domain of FLT3 (p.Tyr589_Tyr591delinsTrpAlaGlyAsp) was also observed.

Conclusion

These unique variants could have a potential mutational significance and these could be candidate genes in elucidating the possibility of predisposition to cancers within the population. This study merits further investigation for its role in diagnosis and prognosis and also suggests the need for population wide screening to identify unique mutations that might play a key role towards precision medicine.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12863-022-01037-x.

Association of Genetic Ancestry With the Molecular Subtypes and Prognosis of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

IMPORTANCE

Racial and ethnic disparities persist in the incidence and treatment outcomes of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). However, there is a paucity of data describing the genetic basis of these disparities, especially in association with modern ALL molecular taxonomy and in the context of contemporary treatment regimens.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the association of genetic ancestry with childhood ALL molecular subtypes and outcomes of modern ALL therapy.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This multinational, multicenter genetic association study was conducted from March 1, 2000, to November 20, 2020, among 2428 children and adolescents with ALL enrolled in frontline trials from the United States, South East Asia (Singapore and Malaysia), and Latin America (Guatemala), representing diverse populations of European, African, Native American, East Asian, and South Asian descent. Statistical analysis was conducted from February 3, 2020, to April 19, 2021.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Molecular subtypes of ALL and genetic ancestry were comprehensively characterized by performing RNA sequencing. Associations of genetic ancestries with ALL molecular subtypes and treatment outcomes were then evaluated.

RESULTS

Among the participants in the study, 1340 of 2318 (57.8%) were male, and the mean (SD) age was 7.8 (5.3) years. Of 21 ALL subtypes identified, 8 were associated with ancestry. East Asian ancestry was positively associated with the frequency of somatic DUX4 (odds ratio [OR], 1.30 [95% CI, 1.16-1.45]; P < .001) and ZNF384 (OR, 1.40 [95% CI, 1.18-1.66]; P < .001) gene rearrangements and negatively associated with BCR-ABL1-like ALL (OR, 0.79 [95% CI, 0.66-0.92]; P = .002) and T-cell ALL (OR, 0.80 [95% CI, 0.71-0.90]; P < .001). By contrast, occurrence of CRLF2 rearrangements was associated with Native American ancestry (OR, 1.48 [95% CI, 1.29-1.69]; P < .001). When the percentage of Native American ancestry increased, ETV6-RUNX1 fusion became less frequent (OR, 0.80 [95% CI, 0.70-0.91]; P < .001), with the opposite trend observed for ETV6-RUNX1-like ALL. There was a marked preponderance of T-cell ALL in children of African descent compared with those with a high percentage of Native American ancestry (African: OR, 1.22 [95% CI, 1.07-1.37]; P = .003; Native American: OR, 0.53 [95% CI, 0.40-0.67]; P < .001). African ancestry was also positively associated with the prevalence of TCF3-PBX1 (OR, 1.49 [95% CI, 1.25-1.76]; P < .001) and negatively associated with DUX4 rearrangements (OR, 0.70 [95% CI, 0.48-0.93]; P = .01) and hyperdiploidy (OR, 0.77 [95% CI, 0.68-0.86]; P < .001). African and Native American ancestries as continuous variables were both associated with poorer event-free survival (for every 25% increase in ancestry: hazard ratio [HR], 1.2; 95% CI, 1.1-1.4; P = .001 for African ancestry; HR, 1.3; 95% CI, 1.0-1.6; P = .04 for Native American ancestry) and overall survival (for every 25% increase in ancestry: HR, 1.2; 95% CI, 1.1-1.5; P = .01 for African ancestry; HR, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.0-1.8; P = .03 for Native American ancestry). Even after adjusting for biological subtypes and clinical features, Native American and African ancestries remained associated with poor prognosis.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This study suggests that ALL molecular subtypes and prognosis are associated with genetic ancestry, potentially pointing to a genetic basis for some of the racial and ethnic disparities in ALL. Therefore, molecular subtype-driven treatment individualization is needed to help address racial and ethnic gaps in outcomes.

Building cross-border collaborations to increase diversity and accelerate rare disease drug development - meeting report from the inaugural IndoUSrare Annual Conference 2021

The inaugural IndoUSrare Annual Conference was held virtually from 29 November to 2 December 2021 and was organized by the Indo US Organization for Rare Diseases (IndoUSrare). The event saw participation from over 250 stakeholders of rare diseases who joined in virtually by audio/video on the Zoom platform from around the world, with a majority of attendees concentrated in the Indian subcontinent and the United States. The conference was held over 4 days from 10:00 a.m. to 12:30 p.m. Eastern Time on each day, which accommodated participation by speakers and attendees from both the eastern and western hemispheres. The agenda over 4 days holistically covered broad topics of interest to different stakeholder groups such as representatives from organizations working toward policy frameworks for rare diseases or orphan drugs (Days 1, 4), biomedical research institutions (Day 2), patient advocacy organizations (Day 3), and patient advocacy and engagement offices within Industry (Day 4). In this meeting report, we summarize the key highlights from each day of this conference, with a perspective on future directions encouraging cross-border multistakeholder collaborations to maximize diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in rare disease diagnosis, research, clinical trials, and treatment access. Each day included a keynote lecture on the theme of the day followed by a series of individual speaker presentations and/or a panel discussion. The goal was to understand current barriers and bottlenecks in the rare disease ecosystem. The discussions also helped highlight gaps and identify potential solutions that can be achieved through building multistakeholder collaborations across international borders, which we believe IndoUSrare is uniquely positioned to do with organizational programs such as rare patient foundation alliance, technology-enabled patient concierge, research corps, and corporate alliance program. The inaugural conference of the then 2+-year-old IndoUSrare organization laid the foundation for ongoing engagement of stakeholders between the two countries - the United States and India. The long-term goal is to scale the conference more broadly and serve as a model for other low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

Plain language summary

IndoUSrare held its inaugural Annual Conference from 29 November to 2 December 2021. It was focused on the theme of cross-border collaborations for rare disease drug development, with each day dedicated to a specific patient-focused discussion topic, ranging from patient-led advocacy (Advocacy Day), research (Research Day), rare disease community support and engagement (Patients Alliance Day), to industry collaborations (Industry Day). The 4-day conference was held in virtual mode and attracted over 250 attendees from across the globe. This meeting report provides the key highlights of the event and summarizes learnings and future directions encouraging cross-border collaborations to increase diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in rare disease research and clinical trials.

Mutation analysis of SOD1, C9orf72, TARDBP and FUS genes in ethnically-diverse Malaysian patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

Recent studies have identified SOD1, FUS, TARDBP and C9orf72 as major ALS-related genes in both European and Asian populations. However, significant differences exist in the mutation frequencies of these genes between various ancestral backgrounds. This study aims to identify the frequency of mutations in the common causative ALS genes in a multi-ethnic Malaysian cohort. We screened 101 Malaysian ALS patients including 3 familial and 98 sporadic cases for mutations in the coding regions of SOD1, FUS, and TARDBP by Sanger sequencing. The C9orf72 hexanucleotide repeat expansion was screened using the repeat-primed polymerase chain reaction assay. Mutations were found in 5.9% (6 of 101) of patients including 3.0% (3 of 101) of patients with the previously reported SOD1 missense mutations (p.V48A and p.N87S) and 3.0% (3 of 101) of patients with the C9orf72 repeat expansion. No mutations were found in the FUS and TARDBP genes. This study is the first to report the mutation frequency in an ethnically diverse Malaysian ALS population and warrants further investigation to reveal novel genes and disease pathways.

A data set of variants derived from 1455 clinical and research exomes is efficient in variant prioritization for early-onset monogenic disorders in Indians

Given the genomic uniqueness, a local data set is most desired for Indians, who are underrepresented in existing public databases. We hypothesize patients with rare monogenic disorders and their family members can provide a reliable source of common variants in the population. Exome sequencing (ES) data from families with rare Mendelian disorders was aggregated from five centers in India. The dataset was refined by excluding related individuals and removing the disease-causing variants (refined cohort). The efficiency of these data sets was assessed in a new set of 50 exomes against gnomAD and GenomeAsia. Our original cohort comprised 1455 individuals from 1203 families. The refined cohort had 836 unrelated individuals that retained 1,251,064 variants with 181,125 population-specific and 489,618 common variants. The allele frequencies from our cohort helped to define 97,609 rare variants in gnomAD and 44,520 rare variants in GenomeAsia as common variants in our population. Our variant dataset provided an additional 1.7% and 0.1% efficiency for prioritizing heterozygous and homozygous variants respectively for rare monogenic disorders. We observed additional 19 genes/human knockouts. We list carrier frequency for 142 recessive disorders. This is a large and useful resource of exonic variants for Indians. Despite limitations, datasets from patients are efficient tools for variant prioritization in a resource-limited setting.

Founder variants and population genomes-Toward precision medicine

Human migration and community specific cultural practices have contributed to founder events and enrichment of the variants associated with genetic diseases. While many founder events in isolated populations have remained uncharacterized, the application of genomics in clinical settings as well as for population scale studies in the recent years have provided an unprecedented push towards identification of founder variants associated with human health and disease. The discovery and characterization of founder variants could have far reaching implications not only in understanding the history or genealogy of the disease, but also in implementing evidence based policies and genetic testing frameworks. This further enables precise diagnosis and prevention in an attempt towards precision medicine. This review provides an overview of founder variants along with methods and resources cataloging them. We have also discussed the public health implications and examples of prevalent disease associated founder variants in specific populations.

DALIA- a comprehensive resource of Disease Alleles in Arab population

The Arab population encompasses over 420 million people characterized by genetic admixture and a consequent rich genetic diversity. A number of genetic diseases have been reported for the first time from the population. Additionally a high prevalence of some genetic diseases including autosomal recessive disorders such as hemoglobinopathies and familial mediterranean fever have been found in the population and across the region. There is a paucity of databases cataloguing genetic variants of clinical relevance from the population. The availability of such a catalog could have implications in precise diagnosis, genetic epidemiology and prevention of disease. To fill in the gap, we have compiled DALIA, a comprehensive compendium of genetic variants reported in literature and implicated in genetic diseases reported from the Arab population. The database aims to act as an effective resource for population-scale and sub-population specific variant analyses, enabling a ready reference aiding clinical interpretation of genetic variants, genetic epidemiology, as well as facilitating rapid screening and a quick reference for evaluating evidence on genetic diseases.

Frequency spectrum of rare and clinically relevant markers in multiethnic Indian populations (ClinIndb): A resource for genomic medicine in India

There have been concerted efforts toward cataloging rare and deleterious variants in different world populations using high-throughput genotyping and sequencing-based methods. The Indian population is underrepresented or its information with respect to clinically relevant variants is sparse in public data sets. The aim of this study was to estimate the burden of monogenic disease-causing variants in Indian populations. Toward this, we have assessed the frequency profile of monogenic phenotype-associated ClinVar variants. The study utilized a genotype data set (global screening array, Illumina) from 2795 individuals (multiple in-house genomics cohorts) representing diverse ethnic and geographically distinct Indian populations. Of the analyzed variants from Global Screening Array, ~9% were found to be informative and were either not known earlier or underrepresented in public databases in terms of their frequencies. These variants were linked to disorders, namely inborn errors of metabolism, monogenic diabetes, hereditary cancers, and various other hereditary conditions. We have also shown that our study cohort is genetically a better representative of the Indian population than its representation in the 1000 Genome Project (South Asians). We have created a database, ClinIndb, linked to the Leiden Open Variation Database, to help clinicians and researchers in diagnosis, counseling, and development of appropriate genetic screening tools relevant to the Indian populations and Indians living abroad.

Pharmacogenomics in Asian Subpopulations and Impacts on Commonly Prescribed Medications

Asians as a group comprise > 60% the world's population. There is an incredible amount of diversity in Asian and admixed populations that has not been addressed in a pharmacogenetic context. The known pharmacogenetic differences in Asian subgroups generally represent previously known variants that are present at much lower or higher frequencies in Asians compared with other populations. In this review we summarize the main drugs and known genes that appear to have differences in their pharmacogenetic properties in certain Asian populations. Evidence-based guidelines and summary statistics from the US Food and Drug Administration and the Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium were analyzed for ethnic differences in outcomes. Implicated drugs included commonly prescribed drugs such as warfarin, clopidogrel, carbamazepine, and allopurinol. The majority of these associations are due to Asians more commonly being poor metabolizers of cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C19 and carriers of the human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-B*15:02 allele. The relative risk increase was shown to vary between genes and drugs, but could be > 100-fold higher in Asians. Specifically, there was a 172-fold increased risk of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis with carbamazepine use among HLA-B*15:02 carriers. The effects ranged from relatively benign reactions such as reduced drug efficacy to severe cutaneous skin reactions. These reactions are severe and prevalent enough to warrant pharmacogenetic testing and appropriate changes in dose and medication choice for at-risk populations. Further studies should be done on Asian cohorts to more fully understand pharmacogenetic variants in these populations and to clarify how such differences may influence drug response.

Ophthalmic genetics practice and research in India: Vision in 2020

Ophthalmic genetics is a much needed and growing area in India. Ethnic diversity, with a high degree of consanguinity, has led to a high prevalence of genetic disorders in the country. As the second most populous country in the world, this naturally results in a significant number of affected people overall. Practice involves coherent association between ophthalmologists, genetic counselor and pediatricians. Eye genetics in India in recent times has witnessed advanced research using cutting edge diagnostics, next generation sequencing (NGS) approaches, stem cell therapies, gene therapy and genomic editing. This article will highlight the studies reporting genetic variations in the country, challenges in practice, and the latest advances in ophthalmic genetic research in India.

A Review on the Challenges in Indian Genomics Research for Variant Identification and Interpretation

Today, genomic data holds great potential to improve healthcare strategies across various dimensions – be it disease prevention, enhanced diagnosis, or optimized treatment. The biggest hurdle faced by the medical and research community in India is the lack of genotype-phenotype correlations for Indians at a population-wide and an individual level. This leads to inefficient translation of genomic information during clinical decision making. Population-wide sequencing projects for Indian genomes help overcome hurdles and enable us to unearth and validate the genetic markers for different health conditions. Machine learning algorithms are essential to analyze huge amounts of genotype data in synergy with gene expression, demographic, clinical, and pathological data. Predictive models developed through these algorithms help in classifying the individuals into different risk groups, so that preventive measures and personalized therapies can be designed. They also help in identifying the impact of each genetic marker with the associated condition, from a clinical perspective. In India, genome sequencing technologies have now become more accessible to the general population. However, information on variants associated with several major diseases is not available in publicly-accessible databases. Creating a centralized database of variants facilitates early detection and mitigation of health risks in individuals. In this article, we discuss the challenges faced by genetic researchers and genomic testing facilities in India, in terms of dearth of public databases, people with knowledge on machine learning algorithms, computational resources and awareness in the medical community in interpreting genetic variants. Potential solutions to enhance genomic research in India, are also discussed.

Genomics of rare genetic diseases-experiences from India

Home to a culturally heterogeneous population, India is also a melting pot of genetic diversity. The population architecture characterized by multiple endogamous groups with specific marriage patterns, including the widely prevalent practice of consanguinity, not only makes the Indian population distinct from rest of the world but also provides a unique advantage and niche to understand genetic diseases. Centuries of genetic isolation of population groups have amplified the founder effects, contributing to high prevalence of recessive alleles, which translates into genetic diseases, including rare genetic diseases in India.Rare genetic diseases are becoming a public health concern in India because a large population size of close to a billion people would essentially translate to a huge disease burden for even the rarest of the rare diseases. Genomics-based approaches have been demonstrated to accelerate the diagnosis of rare genetic diseases and reduce the socio-economic burden. The Genomics for Understanding Rare Diseases: India Alliance Network (GUaRDIAN) stands for providing genomic solutions for rare diseases in India. The consortium aims to establish a unique collaborative framework in health care planning, implementation, and delivery in the specific area of rare genetic diseases. It is a nation-wide collaborative research initiative catering to rare diseases across multiple cohorts, with over 240 clinician/scientist collaborators across 70 major medical/research centers. Within the GUaRDIAN framework, clinicians refer rare disease patients, generate whole genome or exome datasets followed by computational analysis of the data for identifying the causal pathogenic variations. The outcomes of GUaRDIAN are being translated as community services through a suitable platform providing low-cost diagnostic assays in India. In addition to GUaRDIAN, several genomic investigations for diseased and healthy population are being undertaken in the country to solve the rare disease dilemma.In summary, rare diseases contribute to a significant disease burden in India. Genomics-based solutions can enable accelerated diagnosis and management of rare diseases. We discuss how a collaborative research initiative such as GUaRDIAN can provide a nation-wide framework to cater to the rare disease community of India.

Meta-analysis of genomic variants and gene expression data in schizophrenia suggests the potential need for adjunctive therapeutic interventions for neuropsychiatric disorders

Schizophrenia (SZ) is a debilitating mental illness with a multigenic aetiology and significant heritability. Despite extensive genetic studies, the molecular aetiology has remained enigmatic. A recent systems biology study suggested a protein-protein interaction network for SZ with 504 novel interactions. The onset of psychiatric disorders is predominant during adolescence, often accompanied by subtle structural abnormalities in multiple regions of the brain. The availability of BrainSpan Atlas data allowed us to re-examine the genes present in the SZ interactome as a function of space and time. The availability of genomes of healthy centenarians and nonpsychiatric Exome Aggregation Consortium database allowed us to identify the variants of criticality. The expression of the SZ candidate genes responsible for cognition and disease onset was studied in different brain regions during particular developmental stages. A subset of novel interactors detected in the network was further validated using gene expression data of post-mortem brains of patients with psychiatric illness. We have narrowed down the list of drug targets proposed by theprevious interactome study to 10 proteins. These proteins belonging to 81 biological pathways are targeted by 34 known Food and Drug Administration-approved drugs that have distinct potential for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. We also report the possibility of targeting key genes belonging to celecoxib pharmacodynamics, Gα signalling and cGMP-PKG signalling pathwaysthat are not known to be specific to SZ aetiology.