1
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Zeineddine S, Jaber S, Saab SA, Nakhleh J, Dimopoulos G, Osta MA. Late sporogonic stages of Plasmodium parasites are susceptible to the melanization response in Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1438019. [PMID: 39149419 PMCID: PMC11324593 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1438019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 08/17/2024] Open
Abstract
The malaria-causing parasites have to complete a complex infection cycle in the mosquito vector that also involves attack by the insect's innate immune system, especially at the early stages of midgut infection. However, Anopheles immunity to the late Plasmodium sporogonic stages, such as oocysts, has received little attention as they are considered to be concealed from immune factors due to their location under the midgut basal lamina and for harboring an elaborate cell wall comprising an external layer derived from the basal lamina that confers self-properties to an otherwise foreign structure. Here, we investigated whether Plasmodium berghei oocysts and sporozoites are susceptible to melanization-based immunity in Anopheles gambiae. Silencing of the negative regulator of melanization response, CLIPA14, increased melanization prevalence without significantly increasing the numbers of melanized oocysts, while co-silencing CLIPA14 with CLIPA2, a second negative regulator of melanization, resulted in a significant increase in melanized oocysts and melanization prevalence. Only late-stage oocysts were found to be melanized, suggesting that oocyst rupture was a prerequisite for melanization-based immune attack, presumably due to the loss of the immune-evasive features of their wall. We also found melanized sporozoites inside oocysts and in the hemocoel, suggesting that sporozoites at different maturation stages are susceptible to melanization. Silencing the melanization promoting factors TEP1 and CLIPA28 rescued oocyst melanization in CLIPA2/CLIPA14 co-silenced mosquitoes. Interestingly, silencing of CTL4, that protects early stage ookinetes from melanization, had no effect on oocysts and sporozoites, indicating differential regulation of immunity to early and late sporogonic stages. Similar to previous studies addressing ookinete stage melanization, the melanization of Plasmodium falciparum oocysts was significantly lower than that observed for P. berghei. In summary, our results provide conclusive evidence that late sporogonic malaria parasite stages are susceptible to melanization, and we reveal distinct regulatory mechanisms for ookinete and oocyst melanization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suheir Zeineddine
- Department of Biology, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Sana Jaber
- Department of Biology, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Sally A. Saab
- Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Johnny Nakhleh
- Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - George Dimopoulos
- Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Mike A. Osta
- Department of Biology, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
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2
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Zeineddine S, Jaber S, Saab SA, Nakhleh J, Dimopoulos G, Osta MA. Late sporogonic stages of Plasmodium parasites are susceptible to the melanization response in Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.05.31.596773. [PMID: 38853990 PMCID: PMC11160730 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.31.596773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
The malaria-causing parasites have to complete a complex infection cycle in the mosquito vector that also involves attack by the insect's innate immune system, especially at the early stages of midgut infection. However, Anopheles immunity to the late Plasmodium sporogonic stages, such as oocysts, has received little attention as they are considered to be concealed from immune factors due to their location under the midgut basal lamina and for harboring an elaborate cell wall comprising an external layer derived from the basal lamina that confers self-properties to an otherwise foreign structure. Here, we investigated whether Plasmodium berghei oocysts and sporozoites are susceptible to melanization-based immunity in Anopheles gambiae. Silencing of the negative regulator of melanization response, CLIPA14, increased melanization prevalence without significantly increasing the numbers of melanized oocysts, while co-silencing CLIPA14 with CLIPA2, a second negative regulator of melanization, resulted in a significant increase in melanized oocysts and melanization prevalence. Only late-stage oocysts were found to be melanized, suggesting that oocyst rupture was a prerequisite for melanization-based immune attack, presumably due to the loss of the immune-evasive features of their wall. We also found melanized sporozoites inside oocysts and in the hemocoel, suggesting that sporozoites at different maturation stages are susceptible to melanization. Silencing the melanization promoting factors TEP1 and CLIPA28 rescued oocyst melanization in CLIPA2/CLIPA14 co-silenced mosquitoes. Interestingly, silencing of CTL4, that protects early stage ookinetes from melanization, had no effect on oocysts and sporozoites, indicating differential regulation of immunity to early and late sporogonic stages. Similar to previous studies addressing ookinete stage melanization, the melanization of Plasmodium falciparum oocysts was significantly lower than that observed for P. berghei. In summary, our results provide conclusive evidence that late sporogonic malaria parasite stages are susceptible to melanization, and we reveal distinct regulatory mechanisms for ookinete and oocyst melanization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suheir Zeineddine
- Department of Biology, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Sana Jaber
- Department of Biology, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Sally A. Saab
- Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Johnny Nakhleh
- Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - George Dimopoulos
- Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Mike A. Osta
- Department of Biology, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
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3
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Thieleke-Matos C, Walz K, Frischknecht F, Singer M. Overcoming the egress block of Plasmodium sporozoites expressing fluorescently tagged circumsporozoite protein. Mol Microbiol 2024; 121:565-577. [PMID: 38396332 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.15230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoites are the highly motile and invasive forms of the malaria parasite transmitted by mosquitoes. Sporozoites form within oocysts at the midgut wall of the mosquito, egress from oocysts and enter salivary glands prior to transmission. The GPI-anchored major surface protein, the circumsporozoite protein (CSP) is important for Plasmodium sporozoite formation, egress, migration and invasion. To visualize CSP, we previously generated full-length versions of CSP internally tagged with the green fluorescent protein, GFP. However, while these allowed for imaging of sporogony in oocysts, sporozoites failed to egress. Here, we explore different strategies to overcome this block in egress and obtain salivary gland resident sporozoites that express CSP-GFP. Replacing the N-terminal and repeat region with GFP did not allow sporozoite formation. Lowering expression of CSP-GFP at the endogenous locus allowed sporozoite formation but did not overcome egress block. Crossing of CSP-GFP expressing parasites that are blocked in egress with wild-type parasites yielded a small fraction of parasites that entered salivary glands and expressed various levels of CSP-GFP. Expressing CSP-GFP constructs from a silent chromosome region from promoters that are active only post salivary gland invasion yielded normal numbers of fluorescent salivary gland sporozoites, albeit with low levels of fluorescence. We also show that lowering CSP expression by 50% allowed egress from oocysts but not salivary gland entry. In conclusion, Plasmodium berghei parasites with normal CSP expression tolerate a certain level of CSP-GFP without disruption of oocyst egress and salivary gland invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Thieleke-Matos
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kevin Walz
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Friedrich Frischknecht
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research, DZIF, Partner site Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Mirko Singer
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
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4
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Beyeler R, Jordan M, Dorner L, He B, Cyrklaff M, Roques M, Stanway R, Frischknecht F, Heussler V. Putative prefoldin complex subunit 5 of Plasmodium berghei is crucial for microtubule formation and parasite development in the mosquito. Mol Microbiol 2024; 121:481-496. [PMID: 38009402 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.15196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/28/2023]
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoite development in and egress from oocysts in the Anopheles mosquito remains largely enigmatic. In a previously performed high-throughput knockout screen, the putative subunit 5 of the prefoldin complex (PbPCS5, PBANKA_0920100) was identified as essential for parasite development during mosquito and liver stage development. Here we generated and analyzed a PbPCS5 knockout parasite line during its development in the mosquito. Interestingly, PbPCS5 deletion does not significantly affect oocyst formation but leads to a growth defect resulting in aberrantly shaped sporozoites. Sporozoites produced in the absence of PbPCS5 were thinner, markedly elongated, and did, in most cases, not contain a nucleus. Sporozoites contained fewer subpellicular microtubules, which reached deep into the sporoblast during sporogony where they contacted and indented nuclei. These aberrantly shaped sporozoites did not reach the salivary glands, and we, therefore, conclude that PbPCS5 is essential for sporogony and the life cycle progression of the parasite during its mosquito stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphael Beyeler
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Melanie Jordan
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Heidelberg Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Lilian Dorner
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Heidelberg Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Buyuan He
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Heidelberg Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marek Cyrklaff
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Heidelberg Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Magali Roques
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Rebecca Stanway
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Friedrich Frischknecht
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Heidelberg Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research, DZIF Partner Site Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Volker Heussler
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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5
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Kehrer J, Formaglio P, Muthinja JM, Weber S, Baltissen D, Lance C, Ripp J, Grech J, Meissner M, Funaya C, Amino R, Frischknecht F. Plasmodium
sporozoite disintegration during skin passage limits malaria parasite transmission. EMBO Rep 2022; 23:e54719. [PMID: 35403820 PMCID: PMC9253755 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202254719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
During transmission of malaria‐causing parasites from mosquitoes to mammals, Plasmodium sporozoites migrate rapidly in the skin to search for a blood vessel. The high migratory speed and narrow passages taken by the parasites suggest considerable strain on the sporozoites to maintain their shape. Here, we show that the membrane‐associated protein, concavin, is important for the maintenance of the Plasmodium sporozoite shape inside salivary glands of mosquitoes and during migration in the skin. Concavin‐GFP localizes at the cytoplasmic periphery and concavin(−) sporozoites progressively round up upon entry of salivary glands. Rounded concavin(−) sporozoites fail to pass through the narrow salivary ducts and are rarely ejected by mosquitoes, while normally shaped concavin(−) sporozoites are transmitted. Strikingly, motile concavin(−) sporozoites disintegrate while migrating through the skin leading to parasite arrest or death and decreased transmission efficiency. Collectively, we suggest that concavin contributes to cell shape maintenance by riveting the plasma membrane to the subtending inner membrane complex. Interfering with cell shape maintenance pathways might hence provide a new strategy to prevent a malaria infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Kehrer
- Integrative Parasitology Center for Infectious Diseases Heidelberg University Medical School Heidelberg Germany
- Infectious Diseases Imaging Platform Center for Infectious Diseases Heidelberg University Medical School Heidelberg Germany
| | - Pauline Formaglio
- Malaria Infection and Immunity Unit Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors Institut Pasteur Paris France
| | - Julianne Mendi Muthinja
- Integrative Parasitology Center for Infectious Diseases Heidelberg University Medical School Heidelberg Germany
| | - Sebastian Weber
- Electron Microscopy Core Facility Heidelberg University Heidelberg Germany
| | - Danny Baltissen
- Integrative Parasitology Center for Infectious Diseases Heidelberg University Medical School Heidelberg Germany
| | - Christopher Lance
- Integrative Parasitology Center for Infectious Diseases Heidelberg University Medical School Heidelberg Germany
| | - Johanna Ripp
- Integrative Parasitology Center for Infectious Diseases Heidelberg University Medical School Heidelberg Germany
| | - Janessa Grech
- Experimental Parasitology Ludwig Maximilian University Munich Planegg‐Martinsried Germany
| | - Markus Meissner
- Experimental Parasitology Ludwig Maximilian University Munich Planegg‐Martinsried Germany
| | - Charlotta Funaya
- Electron Microscopy Core Facility Heidelberg University Heidelberg Germany
| | - Rogerio Amino
- Malaria Infection and Immunity Unit Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors Institut Pasteur Paris France
| | - Friedrich Frischknecht
- Integrative Parasitology Center for Infectious Diseases Heidelberg University Medical School Heidelberg Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Heidelberg Heidelberg Germany
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6
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Malaria oocysts require circumsporozoite protein to evade mosquito immunity. Nat Commun 2022; 13:3208. [PMID: 35680915 PMCID: PMC9184642 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-30988-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasites are less vulnerable to mosquito immune responses once ookinetes transform into oocysts, facilitating parasite development in the mosquito. However, the underlying mechanisms of oocyst resistance to mosquito defenses remain unclear. Here, we show that circumsporozoite protein (CSP) is required for rodent malaria oocysts to avoid mosquito defenses. Mosquito infection with CSPmut parasites (mutation in the CSP pexel I/II domains) induces nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase 5 (NOX5)-mediated hemocyte nitration, thus activating Toll pathway and melanization of mature oocysts, upregulating hemocyte TEP1 expression, and causing defects in the release of sporozoites from oocysts. The pre-infection of mosquitoes with the CSPmut parasites reduces the burden of infection when re-challenged with CSPwt parasites by inducing hemocyte nitration. Thus, we demonstrate why oocysts are invisible to mosquito immunity and reveal an unknown role of CSP in the immune evasion of oocysts, indicating it as a potential target to block malaria transmission. Circumsporozoite protein (CSP), the major surface protein of Plasmodium sporozoites, is important for parasite targeting to mosquito salivary glands and the mammalian liver. Here, Zhu et al. show that CSP is required for rodent malaria oocysts to evade mosquito immunity by inducing hemocyte nitration and causing subsequent defects in sporozoite-release from oocysts.
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7
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Singer M, Frischknecht F. Fluorescent tagging of Plasmodium circumsporozoite protein allows imaging of sporozoite formation but blocks egress from oocysts. Cell Microbiol 2021; 23:e13321. [PMID: 33600048 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The circumsporozoite protein, CSP, is the major surface protein of Plasmodium sporozoites, the form of malaria parasites transmitted by mosquitoes. CSP is involved in sporozoite formation within and egress from oocysts, entry into mosquito salivary glands and mammalian liver as well as migration in the skin. Yet, how CSP facilitates sporozoite formation, oocyst egress and hepatocyte specific invasion is still not fully understood. Here, we aimed at generating a series of parasites expressing full-length versions of CSP with internally inserted green fluorescent protein between known domains at the endogenous csp locus. This enabled the investigation of sporozoite formation in living oocysts. GFP insertion after the signal peptide leads to cleavage of GFP before the fusion protein reached the plasma membrane while insertion of GFP before or after the TSR domain prevented sporozoite egress and liver invasion. These data suggest different strategies for obtaining mature salivary gland sporozoites that express GFP-CSP fusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Singer
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
- Experimental Parasitology, Department for Veterinary Sciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Friedrich Frischknecht
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
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8
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Abstract
All intracellular pathogens must escape (egress) from the confines of their host cell to disseminate and proliferate. The malaria parasite only replicates in an intracellular vacuole or in a cyst, and must undergo egress at four distinct phases during its complex life cycle, each time disrupting, in a highly regulated manner, the membranes or cyst wall that entrap the parasites. This Cell Science at a Glance article and accompanying poster summarises our current knowledge of the morphological features of egress across the Plasmodium life cycle, the molecular mechanisms that govern the process, and how researchers are working to exploit this knowledge to develop much-needed new approaches to malaria control. ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele S Y Tan
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Michael J Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, UK .,Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK
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9
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Pedron CN, Silva AF, Torres MDT, Oliveira CSD, Andrade GP, Cerchiaro G, Pinhal MAS, de la Fuente-Nunez C, Oliveira Junior VX. Net charge tuning modulates the antiplasmodial and anticancer properties of peptides derived from scorpion venom. J Pept Sci 2021; 27:e3296. [PMID: 33442881 DOI: 10.1002/psc.3296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
VmCT1, a linear helical antimicrobial peptide isolated from the venom of the scorpion Vaejovis mexicanus, displays broad spectrum antimicrobial activity against bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Analogs derived from this peptide containing single Arg-substitutions have been shown to increase antimicrobial and antiparasitic activities against Trypanossoma cruzi. Here, we tested these analogs against malaria, an infectious disease caused by Plasmodium protozoa, and assessed their antitumoral properties. Specifically, we tested VmCT1 synthetic variants [Arg]3 -VmCT1-NH2 , [Arg]7 -VmCT1-NH2 , and [Arg]11 -VmCT1-NH2 , against Plasmodium gallinaceum sporozoites and MCF-7 mammary cancer cells. Our screen identified peptides [Arg]3 -VmCT1-NH2 and [Arg]7 -VmCT1-NH2 as potent antiplasmodial agents (IC50 of 0.57 and 0.51 μmol L-1 , respectively), whereas [Arg]11 -VmCT1-NH2 did not show activity against P. gallinaceum sporozoites. Interestingly, all peptides presented activity against MCF-7 and displayed lower cytotoxicity toward healthy cells. We demonstrate that increasing the net positive charge of VmCT1, through arginine substitutions, modulates the biological properties of this peptide family yielding novel antiplasmodial and antitumoral molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cibele Nicolaski Pedron
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, SP, 09210580, Brazil.,Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, 04044020, Brazil
| | - Adriana Farias Silva
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, SP, 09210580, Brazil.,Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, 04044020, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Der Torossian Torres
- Machine Biology Group, Departments of Psychiatry and Microbiology, Institute for Biomedical Informatics, Institute for Translational Medicine and Therapeutics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA.,Departments of Bioengineering and Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA.,Penn Institute for Computational Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | | | - Gislaine Patricia Andrade
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, SP, 09210580, Brazil
| | - Giselle Cerchiaro
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, SP, 09210580, Brazil
| | | | - Cesar de la Fuente-Nunez
- Machine Biology Group, Departments of Psychiatry and Microbiology, Institute for Biomedical Informatics, Institute for Translational Medicine and Therapeutics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA.,Departments of Bioengineering and Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA.,Penn Institute for Computational Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Vani Xavier Oliveira Junior
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, SP, 09210580, Brazil.,Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, 04044020, Brazil
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10
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The Riveting Cellular Structures of Apicomplexan Parasites. Trends Parasitol 2020; 36:979-991. [PMID: 33011071 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2020.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parasitic protozoa of the phylum Apicomplexa cause a range of human and animal diseases. Their complex life cycles - often heteroxenous with sexual and asexual phases in different hosts - rely on elaborate cytoskeletal structures to enable morphogenesis and motility, organize cell division, and withstand diverse environmental forces. This review primarily focuses on studies using Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium spp. as the best studied apicomplexans; however, many cytoskeletal adaptations are broadly conserved and predate the emergence of the parasitic phylum. After decades cataloguing the constituents of such structures, a dynamic picture is emerging of the assembly and maintenance of apicomplexan cytoskeletons, illuminating how they template and orient critical processes during infection. These observations impact our view of eukaryotic diversity and offer future challenges for cell biology.
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11
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Tokunaga N, Nozaki M, Tachibana M, Baba M, Matsuoka K, Tsuboi T, Torii M, Ishino T. Expression and Localization Profiles of Rhoptry Proteins in Plasmodium berghei Sporozoites. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:316. [PMID: 31552198 PMCID: PMC6746830 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In the Plasmodium lifecycle two infectious stages of parasites, merozoites, and sporozoites, efficiently infect mammalian host cells, erythrocytes, and hepatocytes, respectively. The apical structure of merozoites and sporozoites contains rhoptry and microneme secretory organelles, which are conserved with other infective forms of apicomplexan parasites. During merozoite invasion of erythrocytes, some rhoptry proteins are secreted to form a tight junction between the parasite and target cell, while others are discharged to maintain subsequent infection inside the parasitophorous vacuole. It has been questioned whether the invasion mechanisms mediated by rhoptry proteins are also involved in sporozoite invasion of two distinct target cells, mosquito salivary glands and mammalian hepatocytes. Recently we demonstrated that rhoptry neck protein 2 (RON2), which is crucial for tight junction formation in merozoites, is also important for sporozoite invasion of both target cells. With the aim of comprehensively describing the mechanisms of sporozoite invasion, the expression and localization profiles of rhoptry proteins were investigated in Plasmodium berghei sporozoites. Of 12 genes representing merozoite rhoptry molecules, nine are transcribed in oocyst-derived sporozoites at a similar or higher level compared to those in blood-stage schizonts. Immuno-electron microscopy demonstrates that eight proteins, namely RON2, RON4, RON5, ASP/RON1, RALP1, RON3, RAP1, and RAMA, localize to rhoptries in sporozoites. It is noteworthy that most rhoptry neck proteins in merozoites are localized throughout rhoptries in sporozoites. This study demonstrates that most rhoptry proteins, except components of the high-molecular mass rhoptry protein complex, are commonly expressed in merozoites and sporozoites in Plasmodium spp., which suggests that components of the invasion mechanisms are basically conserved between infective forms independently of their target cells. Combined with sporozoite-stage specific gene silencing strategies, the contribution of rhoptry proteins in invasion mechanisms can be described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naohito Tokunaga
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Mamoru Nozaki
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Mayumi Tachibana
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Minami Baba
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Matsuoka
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Takafumi Tsuboi
- Division of Malaria Research, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Japan
| | - Motomi Torii
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Tomoko Ishino
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
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12
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Kojin BB, Adelman ZN. The Sporozoite's Journey Through the Mosquito: A Critical Examination of Host and Parasite Factors Required for Salivary Gland Invasion. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
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13
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Spreng B, Fleckenstein H, Kübler P, Di Biagio C, Benz M, Patra P, Schwarz US, Cyrklaff M, Frischknecht F. Microtubule number and length determine cellular shape and function in Plasmodium. EMBO J 2019; 38:e100984. [PMID: 31368598 PMCID: PMC6669926 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2018100984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Microtubules are cytoskeletal filaments essential for many cellular processes, including establishment and maintenance of polarity, intracellular transport, division and migration. In most metazoan cells, the number and length of microtubules are highly variable, while they can be precisely defined in some protozoan organisms. However, in either case the significance of these two key parameters for cells is not known. Here, we quantitatively studied the impact of modulating microtubule number and length in Plasmodium, the protozoan parasite causing malaria. Using a gene deletion and replacement strategy targeting one out of two α-tubulin genes, we show that chromosome segregation proceeds in the oocysts even in the absence of microtubules. However, fewer and shorter microtubules severely impaired the formation, motility and infectivity of Plasmodium sporozoites, the forms transmitted by the mosquito, which usually contain 16 microtubules. We found that α-tubulin expression levels directly determined the number of microtubules, suggesting a high nucleation barrier as supported by a mathematical model. Infectious sporozoites were only formed in parasite lines featuring at least 10 microtubules, while parasites with 9 or fewer microtubules failed to transmit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Spreng
- Integrative ParasitologyCenter for Infectious DiseasesHeidelberg University Medical SchoolHeidelbergGermany
| | - Hannah Fleckenstein
- Integrative ParasitologyCenter for Infectious DiseasesHeidelberg University Medical SchoolHeidelbergGermany
| | - Patrick Kübler
- Integrative ParasitologyCenter for Infectious DiseasesHeidelberg University Medical SchoolHeidelbergGermany
| | - Claudia Di Biagio
- Integrative ParasitologyCenter for Infectious DiseasesHeidelberg University Medical SchoolHeidelbergGermany
| | - Madlen Benz
- Integrative ParasitologyCenter for Infectious DiseasesHeidelberg University Medical SchoolHeidelbergGermany
| | - Pintu Patra
- Institute for Theoretical Physics and BioquantHeidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
| | - Ulrich S Schwarz
- Institute for Theoretical Physics and BioquantHeidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
| | - Marek Cyrklaff
- Integrative ParasitologyCenter for Infectious DiseasesHeidelberg University Medical SchoolHeidelbergGermany
| | - Friedrich Frischknecht
- Integrative ParasitologyCenter for Infectious DiseasesHeidelberg University Medical SchoolHeidelbergGermany
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14
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Heide J, Vaughan KC, Sette A, Jacobs T, Schulze Zur Wiesch J. Comprehensive Review of Human Plasmodium falciparum-Specific CD8+ T Cell Epitopes. Front Immunol 2019; 10:397. [PMID: 30949162 PMCID: PMC6438266 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Control of malaria is an important global health issue and there is still an urgent need for the development of an effective prophylactic vaccine. Multiple studies have provided strong evidence that Plasmodium falciparum-specific MHC class I-restricted CD8+ T cells are important for sterile protection against Plasmodium falciparum infection. Here, we present an interactive epitope map of all P. falciparum-specific CD8+ T cell epitopes published to date, based on a comprehensive data base (IEDB), and literature search. The majority of the described P. falciparum-specific CD8+ T cells were directed against the antigens CSP, TRAP, AMA1, and LSA1. Notably, most of the epitopes were discovered in vaccine trials conducted with malaria-naïve volunteers. Only few immunological studies of P. falciparum-specific CD8+ T cell epitopes detected in patients suffering from acute malaria or in people living in malaria endemic areas have been published. Further detailed immunological mappings of P. falciparum-specific epitopes of a broader range of P. falciparum proteins in different settings and with different disease status are needed to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the role of CD8+ T cell responses for protection, and to better guide vaccine design and to study their efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janna Heide
- Infectious Diseases Unit, I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Hamburg-Lübeck-Borstel-Riems, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Kerrie C Vaughan
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Alessandro Sette
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, CA, United States.,Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of California, San Diego (UCSD), La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Thomas Jacobs
- Protozoa Immunology, Bernhard-Nocht-Institute of Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Julian Schulze Zur Wiesch
- Infectious Diseases Unit, I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Hamburg-Lübeck-Borstel-Riems, Hamburg, Germany
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15
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Saeed S, Lau CI, Tremp AZ, Crompton T, Dessens JT. Dysregulated gene expression in oocysts of Plasmodium berghei LAP mutants. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2019; 229:1-5. [PMID: 30753856 PMCID: PMC6452916 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2019.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Plasmodium berghei LAP null mutant oocysts display highly reduced levels of CSP. Transcription of other sporozoite genes and transcription factors is dysregulated. A minority oocyst population can bypass the developmental block in cytokinesis.
Malaria parasite oocysts generate sporozoites by a process termed sporogony. Essential for successful sporogony of Plasmodium berghei in Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes is a complex of six LCCL lectin domain adhesive-like proteins (LAPs). LAP null mutant oocysts undergo growth and mitosis but fail to form sporozoites. At a cytological level, LAP null mutant oocyst development is indistinguishable from its wildtype counterparts for the first week, supporting the hypothesis that LAP null mutant oocysts develop normally before cytokinesis. We show here that LAP1 null mutant oocysts display highly reduced expression of sporozoite proteins and their transcription factors. Our findings indicate that events leading up to the cytokinesis defect in LAP null mutants occur early in oocyst development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadia Saeed
- Pathogen Molecular Biology Department, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, UK
| | - Ching-In Lau
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, 30 Guilford Street, London, UK
| | - Annie Z Tremp
- Pathogen Molecular Biology Department, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, UK
| | - Tessa Crompton
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, 30 Guilford Street, London, UK
| | - Johannes T Dessens
- Pathogen Molecular Biology Department, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, UK.
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16
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Kristan M, Abeku TA, Lines J. Effect of environmental variables and kdr resistance genotype on survival probability and infection rates in Anopheles gambiae (s.s.). Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:560. [PMID: 30367663 PMCID: PMC6204000 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3150-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Environmental factors, especially ambient temperature and relative humidity affect both mosquitoes and malaria parasites. The early part of sporogony is most sensitive and is affected by high temperatures and temperature fluctuation immediately following ingestion of an infectious blood meal. The aim of this study was to explore whether environmental variables such as temperature, together with the presence of the kdr insecticide resistance mutations, have an impact on survival probability and infection rates in wild Anopheles gambiae (s.s.) exposed and unexposed to a pyrethroid insecticide. METHODS Anopheles gambiae (s.s.) were collected as larvae, reared to adults, and fed on blood samples from 42 Plasmodium falciparum-infected local patients at a health facility in mid-western Uganda, then exposed either to nets treated with sub-lethal doses of deltamethrin or to untreated nets. After seven days, surviving mosquitoes were dissected and their midguts examined for oocysts. Prevalence (proportion infected) and intensity of infection (number of oocysts per infected mosquito) were recorded for each group. Mosquito mortality was recorded daily. Temperature and humidity were recorded every 30 minutes throughout the experiments. RESULTS Our findings indicate that apart from the effect of deltamethrin exposure, mean daily temperature during the incubation period, temperature range during the first 24 hours and on day 4 post-infectious feed had a highly significant effect on the risk of infection. Deltamethrin exposure still significantly impaired survival of kdr homozygous mosquitoes, while mean daily temperature and relative humidity during the incubation period independently affected mosquito mortality. Significant differences in survival of resistant genotypes were detected, with the lowest survival recorded in mosquitoes with heterozygote L1014S/L1014F genotype. CONCLUSIONS This study confirmed that the early part of sporogony is most affected by temperature fluctuations, while environmental factors affect mosquito survival. The impact of insecticide resistance on malaria infection and vector survival needs to be assessed separately for mosquitoes with different resistance mechanisms to fully understand its implications for currently available vector control tools and malaria transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mojca Kristan
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
| | | | - Jo Lines
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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17
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Klug D, Kehrer J, Frischknecht F, Singer M. A synthetic promoter for multi-stage expression to probe complementary functions of Plasmodium adhesins. J Cell Sci 2018; 131:jcs.210971. [PMID: 30237220 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.210971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2017] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene expression of malaria parasites is mediated by the apicomplexan Apetala2 (ApiAP2) transcription factor family. Different ApiAP2s control gene expression at distinct stages in the complex life cycle of the parasite, ensuring timely expression of stage-specific genes. ApiAP2s recognize short cis-regulatory elements that are enriched in the upstream/promoter region of their target genes. This should, in principle, allow the generation of 'synthetic' promoters that drive gene expression at desired stages of the Plasmodium life cycle. Here we test this concept by combining cis-regulatory elements of two genes expressed successively within the mosquito part of the life cycle. Our tailored 'synthetic' promoters, named Spooki 1.0 and Spooki 2.0, activate gene expression in early and late mosquito stages, as shown by the expression of a fluorescent reporter. We used these promoters to address the specific functionality of two related adhesins that are exclusively expressed either during the early or late mosquito stage. By modifying the expression profile of both adhesins in absence of their counterpart we were able to test for complementary functions in gliding and invasion. We discuss the possible advantages and drawbacks of our approach.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Klug
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jessica Kehrer
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Friedrich Frischknecht
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Mirko Singer
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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18
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Marin-Mogollon C, van Pul FJA, Miyazaki S, Imai T, Ramesar J, Salman AM, Winkel BMF, Othman AS, Kroeze H, Chevalley-Maurel S, Reyes-Sandoval A, Roestenberg M, Franke-Fayard B, Janse CJ, Khan SM. Chimeric Plasmodium falciparum parasites expressing Plasmodium vivax circumsporozoite protein fail to produce salivary gland sporozoites. Malar J 2018; 17:288. [PMID: 30092798 PMCID: PMC6085629 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-018-2431-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rodent malaria parasites where the gene encoding circumsporozoite protein (CSP) has been replaced with csp genes from the human malaria parasites, Plasmodium falciparum or Plasmodium vivax, are used as pre-clinical tools to evaluate CSP vaccines in vivo. These chimeric rodent parasites produce sporozoites in Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes that are capable of infecting rodent and human hepatocytes. The availability of chimeric P. falciparum parasites where the pfcsp gene has been replaced by the pvcsp would open up possibilities to test P. vivax CSP vaccines in small scale clinical trials using controlled human malaria infection studies. METHODS Using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing two chimeric P. falciparum parasites, were generated, where the pfcsp gene has been replaced by either one of the two major pvcsp alleles, VK210 or VK247. In addition, a P. falciparum parasite line that lacks CSP expression was also generated. These parasite lines have been analysed for sporozoite production in An. stephensi mosquitoes. RESULTS The two chimeric Pf-PvCSP lines exhibit normal asexual and sexual blood stage development in vitro and produce sporozoite-containing oocysts in An. stephensi mosquitoes. Expression of the corresponding PvCSP was confirmed in oocyst-derived Pf-PvCSP sporozoites. However, most oocysts degenerate before sporozoite formation and sporozoites were not found in either the mosquito haemocoel or salivary glands. Unlike the chimeric Pf-PvCSP parasites, oocysts of P. falciparum parasites lacking CSP expression do not produce sporozoites. CONCLUSIONS Chimeric P. falciparum parasites expressing P. vivax circumsporozoite protein fail to produce salivary gland sporozoites. Combined, these studies show that while PvCSP can partially complement the function of PfCSP, species-specific features of CSP govern full sporozoite maturation and development in the two human malaria parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherin Marin-Mogollon
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Fiona J A van Pul
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Shinya Miyazaki
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Takashi Imai
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Host Defense, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, 371-8510, Japan
| | - Jai Ramesar
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ahmed M Salman
- The Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, The Henry Welcome Building for Molecular Physiology, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Beatrice M F Winkel
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ahmad Syibli Othman
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Hans Kroeze
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Severine Chevalley-Maurel
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Arturo Reyes-Sandoval
- The Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, The Henry Welcome Building for Molecular Physiology, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Meta Roestenberg
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Blandine Franke-Fayard
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Chris J Janse
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Shahid M Khan
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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19
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Itsara LS, Zhou Y, Do J, Dungel S, Fishbaugher ME, Betz WW, Nguyen T, Navarro MJ, Flannery EL, Vaughan AM, Kappe SHI, Ghosh AK. PfCap380 as a marker for Plasmodium falciparum oocyst development in vivo and in vitro. Malar J 2018; 17:135. [PMID: 29609625 PMCID: PMC5880026 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-018-2277-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Despite the importance of the Plasmodium berghei oocyst capsule protein (PbCap380) in parasite survival, very little is known about the orthologous Plasmodium falciparum capsule protein (PfCap380). The goal of this work was to study the growth of P. falciparum oocysts using PfCap380 as a developmental marker. Methods To study P. falciparum oocyst development using both in vivo (mosquito-derived) and in vitro (culture-derived) growth conditions, antibodies (polyclonal antisera) were raised against PfCap380. For studies on in vivo oocysts, mature P. falciparum gametocytes were fed to Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes. For studies on in vitro parasites, P. falciparum gametocytes were induced and matured for subsequent ookinete production. Ookinetes were purified and then tested for binding affinity to basal lamina components and transformation into early oocysts, which were grown on reconstituted basal lamia coated wells with novel oocyst media. To monitor in vivo oocyst development, immunofluorescence assays (IFA) were performed using anti-PfCap380 antisera on Pf-infected mosquito midguts. IFA were also performed on culture-derived oocysts to follow in vitro oocyst development. Results The anti-PfCap380 antisera allowed detection of early midgut oocysts starting at 2 days after gametocyte infection, while circumsporozoite protein was definitively observed on day 6. For in vitro culture, significant transformation of gametocytes to ookinetes (24%) and of ookinetes to early oocysts (85%) was observed. After screening several basal lamina components, collagen IV provided greatest binding of ookinetes and transformation into early oocysts. Finally, PfCap380 expression was observed on the surface of culture-derived oocysts but not on gametocytes or ookinetes. Conclusions This study presents developmental monitoring of P. falciparum oocysts produced in vivo and in vitro. The anti-PfCap380 antisera serves as an important reagent for developmental studies of oocysts from the mosquito midgut and also from oocyst culture using in vitro methodology. The present data demonstrate that PfCap380 is a useful marker to follow the development and maturation of in vivo and in vitro produced oocysts as early as 2 days after zygote formation. Further in vitro studies focused on oocyst and sporozoite maturation will support the manufacturing of whole sporozoites for malaria vaccines. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12936-018-2277-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie S Itsara
- MalarVx, Inc., 307 Westlake Ave N Suite 200, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Yaxian Zhou
- MalarVx, Inc., 307 Westlake Ave N Suite 200, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Julie Do
- MalarVx, Inc., 307 Westlake Ave N Suite 200, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Samrita Dungel
- MalarVx, Inc., 307 Westlake Ave N Suite 200, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Matthew E Fishbaugher
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, 307 Westlake Ave N Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Will W Betz
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, 307 Westlake Ave N Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Thao Nguyen
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, 307 Westlake Ave N Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Mary Jane Navarro
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, 307 Westlake Ave N Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Erika L Flannery
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, 307 Westlake Ave N Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Ashley M Vaughan
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, 307 Westlake Ave N Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Stefan H I Kappe
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, 307 Westlake Ave N Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Anil K Ghosh
- MalarVx, Inc., 307 Westlake Ave N Suite 200, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA. .,Center for Infectious Disease Research, 307 Westlake Ave N Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA.
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20
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A Plasmodium plasma membrane reporter reveals membrane dynamics by live-cell microscopy. Sci Rep 2017; 7:9740. [PMID: 28851956 PMCID: PMC5575152 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-09569-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
During asexual replication within the Anopheles mosquito and their vertebrate host, Plasmodium parasites depend on the generation of a massive amount of new plasma membrane to produce thousands of daughter parasites. How the parasite plasma membrane (PPM) is formed has mostly been studied by electron microscopy, which does not allow an insight into the dynamics of this process. We generated a Plasmodium berghei reporter parasite line by GFP-tagging of a non-essential PPM-localized protein, and followed plasma membrane development in living parasites through the entire Plasmodium life cycle. By generating double-fluorescent parasites in which the PPM is visualized in combination with the parasite endoplasmic reticulum, we show that membrane contact sites are formed between both membrane systems during oocyst and liver stage development that might be used to deliver lipids to the dramatically expanding PPM. In conclusion, we have established a powerful tool to follow PPM development in living parasites, which promises to greatly expand our knowledge of membrane biology in the Plasmodium parasite.
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21
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Frischknecht F, Matuschewski K. Plasmodium Sporozoite Biology. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2017; 7:cshperspect.a025478. [PMID: 28108531 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a025478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoite transmission is a critical population bottleneck in parasite life-cycle progression and, hence, a target for prophylactic drugs and vaccines. The recent progress of a candidate antisporozoite subunit vaccine formulation to licensure highlights the importance of sporozoite transmission intervention in the malaria control portfolio. Sporozoites colonize mosquito salivary glands, migrate through the skin, penetrate blood vessels, breach the liver sinusoid, and invade hepatocytes. Understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms that mediate the remarkable sporozoite journey in the invertebrate vector and the vertebrate host can inform evidence-based next-generation drug development programs and immune intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friedrich Frischknecht
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Heidelberg Medical School, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany
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22
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Ganter M, Goldberg JM, Dvorin JD, Paulo JA, King JG, Tripathi AK, Paul AS, Yang J, Coppens I, Jiang RH, Elsworth B, Baker DA, Dinglasan RR, Gygi SP, Duraisingh MT. Plasmodium falciparum CRK4 directs continuous rounds of DNA replication during schizogony. Nat Microbiol 2017; 2:17017. [PMID: 28211852 PMCID: PMC5328244 DOI: 10.1038/nmicrobiol.2017.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Plasmodium parasites, the causative agents of malaria, have evolved a unique cell division cycle in the clinically relevant asexual blood stage of infection1. DNA replication commences approximately halfway through the intracellular development following invasion and parasite growth. The schizont stage is associated with multiple rounds of DNA replication and nuclear division without cytokinesis, resulting in a multinucleated cell. Nuclei divide asynchronously through schizogony, with only the final round of DNA replication and segregation being synchronous and coordinated with daughter cell assembly2,3. However, the control mechanisms for this divergent mode of replication are unknown. Here, we show that the Plasmodium-specific kinase PfCRK4 is a key cell-cycle regulator that orchestrates multiple rounds of DNA replication throughout schizogony in Plasmodium falciparum. PfCRK4 depletion led to a complete block in nuclear division and profoundly inhibited DNA replication. Quantitative phosphoproteomic profiling identified a set of PfCRK4-regulated phosphoproteins with greatest functional similarity to CDK2 substrates, particularly proteins involved in the origin of replication firing. PfCRK4 was required for initial and subsequent rounds of DNA replication during schizogony and, in addition, was essential for development in the mosquito vector. Our results identified an essential S-phase promoting factor of the unconventional P. falciparum cell cycle. PfCRK4 is required for both a prolonged period of the intraerythrocytic stage of Plasmodium infection, as well as for transmission, revealing a broad window for PfCRK4-targeted chemotherapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Ganter
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jonathan M. Goldberg
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jeffrey D. Dvorin
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Joao A. Paulo
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jonas G. King
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, The Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Abhai K. Tripathi
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, The Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Aditya S. Paul
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jing Yang
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Isabelle Coppens
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, The Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Rays H.Y. Jiang
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Brendan Elsworth
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - David A. Baker
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rhoel R. Dinglasan
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, The Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Steven P. Gygi
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Manoj T. Duraisingh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
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Klug D, Frischknecht F. Motility precedes egress of malaria parasites from oocysts. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28115054 PMCID: PMC5262382 DOI: 10.7554/elife.19157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is transmitted when an infected Anopheles mosquito deposits Plasmodium sporozoites in the skin during a bite. Sporozoites are formed within oocysts at the mosquito midgut wall and are released into the hemolymph, from where they invade the salivary glands and are subsequently transmitted to the vertebrate host. We found that a thrombospondin-repeat containing sporozoite-specific protein named thrombospondin-releated protein 1 (TRP1) is important for oocyst egress and salivary gland invasion, and hence for the transmission of malaria. We imaged the release of sporozoites from oocysts in situ, which was preceded by active motility. Parasites lacking TRP1 failed to migrate within oocysts and did not egress, suggesting that TRP1 is a vital component of the events that precede intra-oocyst motility and subsequently sporozoite egress and salivary gland invasion. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.19157.001 Malaria is caused by a parasite transmitted by certain types of mosquito. The parasite lives in different organs within its vertebrate animal and insect hosts and to cope with these different environments it has a complex life cycle with several highly specialized life stages. To move from an infected mosquito into vertebrates the parasite produces spore-like cells called sporozoites that are able to enter different tissues and move very fast. These cells develop inside parasite-made structures called oocysts, which form at the stomach wall of the mosquito. After emerging from the oocyst, sporozoites float through the mosquito’s circulatory system and eventually enter the salivary glands where they can be transmitted to vertebrates when the mosquito bites. Efforts to develop malaria treatments and vaccines have focused on understanding the parasite’s life cycle and identifying ways to control or eradicate key stages. Most researchers focus on the stage where the parasite is living in the vertebrate and actively causing disease, while the events in the mosquito are less intensely investigated. While several parasite proteins have been shown to be important for the release of sporozoites from oocysts, the molecular events leading to this release have not yet been fully resolved. Klug and Frischknecht used time-lapse microscopy to film the release of the sporozoites of a malaria parasite known as Plasmodium berghei. The experiments show that the sporozoites can leave oocysts in several different ways. Furthermore, Klug and Frischknecht identified a new parasite protein named TRP1 that is essential for the sporozoites to leave oocysts and invade the salivary glands. Sporozoites lacking TRP1 were not able to move and they were unable to leave the oocyst or invade the salivary glands. Klug and Frischknecht propose a new working model of the molecular events that govern sporozoite release in which TRP1 is required for sporozoites to move prior to their exit from oocysts. In the future, using the same techniques to analyze genetically modified parasites will help to reveal more details about sporozoite release. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.19157.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Klug
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Friedrich Frischknecht
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
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24
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Zhao J, Bhanot P, Hu J, Wang Q. A Comprehensive Analysis of Plasmodium Circumsporozoite Protein Binding to Hepatocytes. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0161607. [PMID: 27560376 PMCID: PMC4999272 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 08/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Circumsporozoite protein (CSP) is the dominant protein on the surface of Plasmodium sporozoites and plays a critical role in the invasion by sporozoites of hepatocytes. Contacts between CSP and heparin sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) lead to the attachment of sporozoites to hepatocytes and trigger signaling events in the parasite that promote invasion of hepatocytes. The precise sequence elements in CSP that bind HSPGs have not been identified. We performed a systematic in vitro analysis to dissect the association between Plasmodium falciparum CSP (PfCSP) and hepatocytes. We demonstrate that interactions between PfCSP and heparin or a cultured hepatoma cell line, HepG2, are mediated primarily by a lysine-rich site in the amino terminus of PfCSP. Importantly, the carboxyl terminus of PfCSP facilitates heparin-binding by the amino-terminus but does not interact directly with heparin. These findings provide insights into how CSP recognizes hepatocytes and useful information for further functional studies of CSP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinghua Zhao
- Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Purnima Bhanot
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ, 07103, United States of America
| | - Junjie Hu
- Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Tianjin, 300071, China
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Qian Wang
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tianjin Medical University, and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Tianjin, 300070, China
- * E-mail:
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Groat-Carmona AM, Kain H, Brownell J, Douglass AN, Aly ASI, Kappe SHI. A Plasmodium α/β-hydrolase modulates the development of invasive stages. Cell Microbiol 2015; 17:1848-67. [PMID: 26118838 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Revised: 06/19/2015] [Accepted: 06/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The bud emergence (BEM)46 proteins are evolutionarily conserved members of the α/β-hydrolase superfamily, which includes enzymes with diverse functions and a wide range of substrates. Here, we identified a Plasmodium BEM46-like protein (PBLP) and characterized it throughout the life cycle of the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium yoelii. The Plasmodium BEM46-like protein is shown to be closely associated with the parasite plasma membrane of asexual erythrocytic stage schizonts and exo-erythrocytic schizonts; however, PBLP localizes to unique intracellular structures in sporozoites. Generation and analysis of P. yoelii knockout (Δpblp) parasite lines showed that PBLP has an important role in erythrocytic stage merozoite development with Δpblp parasites forming fewer merozoites during schizogony, which results in decreased parasitemia when compared with wild-type (WT) parasites. Δpblp parasites showed no defects in gametogenesis or transmission to mosquitoes; however, because they formed fewer oocysts there was a reduction in the number of developed sporozoites in infected mosquitoes when compared with WT. Although Δpblp sporozoites showed no apparent defect in mosquito salivary gland infection, they showed decreased infectivity in hepatocytes in vitro. Similarly, mice infected with Δpblp sporozoites exhibited a delay in the onset of blood-stage patency, which is likely caused by reduced sporozoite infectivity and a discernible delay in exo-erythrocytic merozoite formation. These data are consistent with the model that PBLP has an important role in parasite invasive-stage morphogenesis throughout the parasite life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M Groat-Carmona
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, formerly Seattle BioMedical Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Heather Kain
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, formerly Seattle BioMedical Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jessica Brownell
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, formerly Seattle BioMedical Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Alyse N Douglass
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, formerly Seattle BioMedical Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Ahmed S I Aly
- School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Stefan H I Kappe
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, formerly Seattle BioMedical Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA.,Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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26
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Ferguson DJP, Balaban AE, Patzewitz EM, Wall RJ, Hopp CS, Poulin B, Mohmmed A, Malhotra P, Coppi A, Sinnis P, Tewari R. The repeat region of the circumsporozoite protein is critical for sporozoite formation and maturation in Plasmodium. PLoS One 2014; 9:e113923. [PMID: 25438048 PMCID: PMC4250072 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The circumsporozoite protein (CSP) is the major surface protein of the sporozoite stage of malaria parasites and has multiple functions as the parasite develops and then migrates from the mosquito midgut to the mammalian liver. The overall structure of CSP is conserved among Plasmodium species, consisting of a species-specific central tandem repeat region flanked by two conserved domains: the NH2-terminus and the thrombospondin repeat (TSR) at the COOH-terminus. Although the central repeat region is an immunodominant B-cell epitope and the basis of the only candidate malaria vaccine in Phase III clinical trials, little is known about its functional role(s). We used the rodent malaria model Plasmodium berghei to investigate the role of the CSP tandem repeat region during sporozoite development. Here we describe two mutant parasite lines, one lacking the tandem repeat region (ΔRep) and the other lacking the NH2-terminus as well as the repeat region (ΔNΔRep). We show that in both mutant lines oocyst formation is unaffected but sporozoite development is defective.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J. P. Ferguson
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Science, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DU, United Kingdom
| | - Amanda E. Balaban
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Eva-Maria Patzewitz
- Centre for Genetics and Genomics, School of Life Sciences, Queens Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG2 7UH, United Kingdom
| | - Richard J. Wall
- Centre for Genetics and Genomics, School of Life Sciences, Queens Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG2 7UH, United Kingdom
| | - Christine S. Hopp
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Benoit Poulin
- Centre for Genetics and Genomics, School of Life Sciences, Queens Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG2 7UH, United Kingdom
| | - Asif Mohmmed
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi-110067, India
| | - Pawan Malhotra
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi-110067, India
| | - Alida Coppi
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Photini Sinnis
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail: (RT); (PS)
| | - Rita Tewari
- Centre for Genetics and Genomics, School of Life Sciences, Queens Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG2 7UH, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (RT); (PS)
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Bauza K, Malinauskas T, Pfander C, Anar B, Jones EY, Billker O, Hill AVS, Reyes-Sandoval A. Efficacy of a Plasmodium vivax malaria vaccine using ChAd63 and modified vaccinia Ankara expressing thrombospondin-related anonymous protein as assessed with transgenic Plasmodium berghei parasites. Infect Immun 2014; 82:1277-86. [PMID: 24379295 PMCID: PMC3957994 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01187-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium vivax is the world's most widely distributed malaria parasite and a potential cause of morbidity and mortality for approximately 2.85 billion people living mainly in Southeast Asia and Latin America. Despite this dramatic burden, very few vaccines have been assessed in humans. The clinically relevant vectors modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) and the chimpanzee adenovirus ChAd63 are promising delivery systems for malaria vaccines due to their safety profiles and proven ability to induce protective immune responses against Plasmodium falciparum thrombospondin-related anonymous protein (TRAP) in clinical trials. Here, we describe the development of new recombinant ChAd63 and MVA vectors expressing P. vivax TRAP (PvTRAP) and show their ability to induce high antibody titers and T cell responses in mice. In addition, we report a novel way of assessing the efficacy of new candidate vaccines against P. vivax using a fully infectious transgenic Plasmodium berghei parasite expressing P. vivax TRAP to allow studies of vaccine efficacy and protective mechanisms in rodents. Using this model, we found that both CD8+ T cells and antibodies mediated protection against malaria using virus-vectored vaccines. Our data indicate that ChAd63 and MVA expressing PvTRAP are good preerythrocytic-stage vaccine candidates with potential for future clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolis Bauza
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Tomas Malinauskas
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Claudia Pfander
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Burcu Anar
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - E. Yvonne Jones
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Oliver Billker
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Currà C, Di Luca M, Picci L, de Sousa Silva Gomes dos Santos C, Siden-Kiamos I, Pace T, Ponzi M. The ETRAMP family member SEP2 is expressed throughout Plasmodium berghei life cycle and is released during sporozoite gliding motility. PLoS One 2013; 8:e67238. [PMID: 23840634 PMCID: PMC3696012 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The early transcribed membrane proteins ETRAMPs belong to a family of small, transmembrane molecules unique to Plasmodium parasite, which share a signal peptide followed by a short lysine-rich stretch, a transmembrane domain and a variable, highly charged C-terminal region. ETRAMPs are usually expressed in a stage-specific manner. In the blood stages they localize to the parasitophorous vacuole membrane and, in described cases, to vesicle-like structures exported to the host erythrocyte cytosol. Two family members of the rodent parasite Plasmodium berghei, uis3 and uis4, localize to secretory organelles of sporozoites and to the parasitophorous membrane vacuole of the liver stages. By the use of specific antibodies and the generation of transgenic lines, we showed that the P. berghei ETRAMP family member SEP2 is abundantly expressed in gametocytes as well as in mosquito and liver stages. In intracellular parasite stages, SEP2 is routed to the parasitophorous vacuole membrane while, in invasive ookinete and sporozoite stages, it localizes to the parasite surface. To date SEP2 is the only ETRAMP protein detected throughout the parasite life cycle. Furthermore, SEP2 is also released during gliding motility of salivary gland sporozoites. A limited number of proteins are known to be involved in this key function and the best characterized, the CSP and TRAP, are both promising transmission-blocking candidates. Our results suggest that ETRAMP members may be viewed as new potential candidates for malaria control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Currà
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Dipartimento di Malattie Infettive, Parassitarie ed Immunomediate, Roma, Italy
| | - Marco Di Luca
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Dipartimento di Malattie Infettive, Parassitarie ed Immunomediate, Roma, Italy
| | - Leonardo Picci
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Dipartimento di Malattie Infettive, Parassitarie ed Immunomediate, Roma, Italy
| | | | - Inga Siden-Kiamos
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, FORTH, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Tomasino Pace
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Dipartimento di Malattie Infettive, Parassitarie ed Immunomediate, Roma, Italy
| | - Marta Ponzi
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Dipartimento di Malattie Infettive, Parassitarie ed Immunomediate, Roma, Italy
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29
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Lin JW, Meireles P, Prudêncio M, Engelmann S, Annoura T, Sajid M, Chevalley-Maurel S, Ramesar J, Nahar C, Avramut CMC, Koster AJ, Matuschewski K, Waters AP, Janse CJ, Mair GR, Khan SM. Loss-of-function analyses defines vital and redundant functions of the Plasmodium rhomboid protease family. Mol Microbiol 2013; 88:318-38. [PMID: 23490234 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Rhomboid-like proteases cleave membrane-anchored proteins within their transmembrane domains. In apicomplexan parasites substrates include molecules that function in parasite motility and host cell invasion. While two Plasmodium rhomboids, ROM1 and ROM4, have been examined, the roles of the remaining six rhomboids during the malaria parasite's life cycle are unknown. We present systematic gene deletion analyses of all eight Plasmodium rhomboid-like proteins as a means to discover stage-specific phenotypes and potential functions in the rodent malaria model, P. berghei. Four rhomboids (ROM4, 6, 7 and 8) are refractory to gene deletion, suggesting an essential role during asexual blood stage development. In contrast ROM1, 3, 9 and 10 were dispensable for blood stage development and exhibited no, subtle or severe defects in mosquito or liver development. Parasites lacking ROM9 and ROM10 showed no major phenotypic defects. Parasites lacking ROM1 presented a delay in blood stage patency following liver infection, but in contrast to a previous study blood stage parasites had similar growth and virulence characteristics as wild type parasites. Parasites lacking ROM3 in mosquitoes readily established oocysts but failed to produce sporozoites. ROM3 is the first apicomplexan rhomboid identified to play a vital role in sporogony.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Wen Lin
- Leiden Malaria Research Group (Parasitology), Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Schlarman MS, Roberts RN, Kariuki MM, LaCrue AN, Ou R, Beerntsen BT. PFE0565w, a Plasmodium falciparum protein expressed in salivary gland sporozoites. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2012; 86:943-54. [PMID: 22665598 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2012.11-0797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Because malaria is still a significant problem worldwide, additional control methods need to be developed. The Plasmodium sporozoite is a good target for control measures because it displays dual infectivity for both mosquito and vertebrate host tissues. The Plasmodium falciparum gene, PFE0565w, was chosen as a candidate for study based on data from PlasmoDB, the Plasmodium database, indicating that it is expressed both at the transcriptional and protein levels in sporozoites, likely encodes a putative surface protein, and may have a potential role in the invasion of host tissues. Additional sequence analysis shows that the PFE0565w protein has orthologs in other Plasmodium species, but none outside of the genus Plasmodium. PFE0565w expresses transcript during both the sporozoite and erythrocytic stages of the parasite life cycle, where an alternative transcript was discovered during the erythrocytic stages. Data show that transcript is not present during axenic exoerythrocytic stages. Despite transcript being present in several life cycle stages, the PFE0565w protein is present only during the salivary gland sporozoite stage. Because the PFE0565w protein is present in salivary gland sporozoites, it could be a novel candidate for a pre-erythrocytic stage vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maggie S Schlarman
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
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31
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Yamamoto DS, Sumitani M, Nagumo H, Yoshida S, Matsuoka H. Induction of antisporozoite antibodies by biting of transgenic Anopheles stephensi delivering malarial antigen via blood feeding. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012; 21:223-33. [PMID: 22787718 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2583.2011.01128.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We produced a transgenic mosquito expressing a rodent malaria vaccine candidate antigen in the salivary gland. Three tandemly repeated amino acid units from the repeat region of circumsporozoite protein of Plasmodium berghei (PbCS3R) fused to red fluorescent protein (monomeric DsRed) was chosen as a vaccine candidate antigen. Immunoblot and fluorescence microscopic analyses showed the transgene expression in the female salivary gland. The transgene product was released from the proboscis as a component of saliva. The monomeric DsRed-fusion expression system could be suitable for transgene secretion in the saliva of female mosquitoes. Mice repeatedly bitten by transgenic mosquitoes raised antibodies against P. berghei sporozoites, and the sera had protective ability against sporozoite invasion of human hepatoma HepG2 cells. These results suggest that transgene products are immunogenically active in saliva, and induce the antibodies to malaria parasite. These findings indicate that this technology has the potential for production of a 'flying vaccinator' for rodent malaria parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- D S Yamamoto
- Division of Medical Zoology, Department of Infectionand Immunity, Jichi Medical University, Yakushiji,Shimotsuke, Tochigi,
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Coppi A, Natarajan R, Pradel G, Bennett BL, James ER, Roggero MA, Corradin G, Persson C, Tewari R, Sinnis P. The malaria circumsporozoite protein has two functional domains, each with distinct roles as sporozoites journey from mosquito to mammalian host. J Exp Med 2011; 208:341-56. [PMID: 21262960 PMCID: PMC3039851 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20101488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2010] [Accepted: 12/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoites make a remarkable journey from the mosquito midgut to the mammalian liver. The sporozoite's major surface protein, circumsporozoite protein (CSP), is a multifunctional protein required for sporozoite development and likely mediates several steps of this journey. In this study, we show that CSP has two conformational states, an adhesive conformation in which the C-terminal cell-adhesive domain is exposed and a nonadhesive conformation in which the N terminus masks this domain. We demonstrate that the cell-adhesive domain functions in sporozoite development and hepatocyte invasion. Between these two events, the sporozoite must travel from the mosquito midgut to the mammalian liver, and N-terminal masking of the cell-adhesive domain maintains the sporozoite in a migratory state. In the mammalian host, proteolytic cleavage of CSP regulates the switch to an adhesive conformation, and the highly conserved region I plays a critical role in this process. If the CSP domain architecture is altered such that the cell-adhesive domain is constitutively exposed, the majority of sporozoites do not reach their target organs, and in the mammalian host, they initiate a blood stage infection directly from the inoculation site. These data provide structure-function information relevant to malaria vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alida Coppi
- Department of Medical Parasitology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10010
| | - Ramya Natarajan
- Department of Medical Parasitology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10010
| | - Gabriele Pradel
- Research Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Brandy L. Bennett
- Department of Medical Parasitology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10010
| | | | - Mario A. Roggero
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Lausanne, 1066 Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Giampietro Corradin
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Lausanne, 1066 Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Cathrine Persson
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umea University, SE-901 87 Umea, Sweden
| | - Rita Tewari
- Center for Genetics and Genomics, School of Biology, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, England, UK
| | - Photini Sinnis
- Department of Medical Parasitology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10010
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Hellmann JK, Münter S, Wink M, Frischknecht F. Synergistic and additive effects of epigallocatechin gallate and digitonin on Plasmodium sporozoite survival and motility. PLoS One 2010; 5:e8682. [PMID: 20072627 PMCID: PMC2800191 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2009] [Accepted: 12/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Most medicinal plants contain a mixture of bioactive compounds, including chemicals that interact with intracellular targets and others that can act as adjuvants to facilitate absorption of polar agents across cellular membranes. However, little is known about synergistic effects between such potential drug candidates and adjuvants. To probe for such effects, we tested the green tea compound epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and the membrane permeabilising digitonin on Plasmodium sporozoite motility and viability. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Green fluorescent P. berghei sporozoites were imaged using a recently developed visual screening methodology. Motility and viability parameters were automatically analyzed and IC50 values were calculated, and the synergism of drug and adjuvant was assessed by the fractional inhibitory concentration index. Validating our visual screening procedure, we showed that sporozoite motility and liver cell infection is inhibited by EGCG at nontoxic concentrations. Digitonin synergistically increases the cytotoxicity of EGCG on sporozoite survival, but shows an additive effect on sporozoite motility. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE We proved the feasibility of performing highly reliable visual screens for compounds against Plasmodium sporozoites. We thereby could show an advantage of administering mixtures of plant metabolites on inhibition of cell motility and survival. Although the effective concentration of both drugs is too high for use in malaria prophylaxis, the demonstration of a synergistic effect between two plant compounds could lead to new avenues in drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janina K. Hellmann
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Heidelberg Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sylvia Münter
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Heidelberg Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Michael Wink
- Department of Biology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- * E-mail: (MW); (FF)
| | - Friedrich Frischknecht
- Department of Biology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- * E-mail: (MW); (FF)
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34
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Smith RC, Jacobs-Lorena M. Plasmodium-Mosquito Interactions: A Tale of Roadblocks and Detours. ADVANCES IN INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 39:119-149. [PMID: 23729903 PMCID: PMC3666160 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-381387-9.00004-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan C Smith
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Malaria Research Institute, The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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35
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Aly ASI, Vaughan AM, Kappe SHI. Malaria parasite development in the mosquito and infection of the mammalian host. Annu Rev Microbiol 2009; 63:195-221. [PMID: 19575563 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.micro.091208.073403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoites are the product of a complex developmental process in the mosquito vector and are destined to infect the mammalian liver. Attention has been drawn to the mosquito stages and pre-erythrocytic stages owing to recognition that these are bottlenecks in the parasite life cycle and that intervention at these stages can block transmission and prevent infection. Parasite progression in the Anopheles mosquito, sporozoite transmission to the mammalian host by mosquito bite, and subsequent infection of the liver are characterized by extensive migration of invasive stages, cell invasion, and developmental changes. Preparation for the liver phase in the mammalian host begins in the mosquito with an extensive reprogramming of the sporozoite to support efficient infection and survival. Here, we discuss what is known about the molecular and cellular basis of the developmental progression of parasites and their interactions with host tissues in the mosquito and during the early phase of mammalian infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed S I Aly
- Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA.
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Tarun AS, Vaughan AM, Kappe SHI. Redefining the role of de novo fatty acid synthesis in Plasmodium parasites. Trends Parasitol 2009; 25:545-50. [PMID: 19819758 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2009.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2009] [Revised: 07/23/2009] [Accepted: 09/08/2009] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Fatty acids are essential components of membranes, and are also involved in cell signalling. Plasmodium, the parasite that causes malaria, scavenges fatty acids from its hosts. However, Plasmodium also possesses enzymes for a prokaryotic-like de novo fatty acid synthesis pathway, which resides in the apicoplast. Recent research has demonstrated that Plasmodium parasites depend on de novo fatty acid synthesis only for liver-stage development. This finding demonstrates that basic anabolic functions of Plasmodium parasites are not necessary for the growth and replication of every life cycle stage. We discuss the role of fatty acid metabolism in Plasmodium and why we believe that de novo fatty acid synthesis is only required for parasite late liver-stage development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice S Tarun
- Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh PA 15261, USA
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Ghosh AK, Jacobs-Lorena M. Plasmodium sporozoite invasion of the mosquito salivary gland. Curr Opin Microbiol 2009; 12:394-400. [PMID: 19608457 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2009.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2009] [Revised: 05/20/2009] [Accepted: 06/01/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
About one to two million people die of malaria every year. Anopheline mosquitoes are the obligatory vectors of Plasmodium spp., the causative agent of malaria. For transmission to occur, the parasite has to undergo a complex developmental programme in the mosquito, culminating with sporozoite invasion of the salivary glands. Strong circumstantial evidence suggests that sporozoite invasion requires specific interactions and recognition between sporozoite and salivary gland proteins. Here we review recent progress towards the elucidation of invasion mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anil Kumar Ghosh
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Combe A, Giovannini D, Carvalho TG, Spath S, Boisson B, Loussert C, Thiberge S, Lacroix C, Gueirard P, Ménard R. Clonal Conditional Mutagenesis in Malaria Parasites. Cell Host Microbe 2009; 5:386-96. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2009.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2008] [Revised: 02/20/2009] [Accepted: 03/27/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Nacer A, Walker K, Hurd H. Localisation of laminin within Plasmodium berghei oocysts and the midgut epithelial cells of Anopheles stephensi. Parasit Vectors 2008; 1:33. [PMID: 18808667 PMCID: PMC2556657 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-1-33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2008] [Accepted: 09/22/2008] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Oocysts of the malaria parasite form and develop in close proximity to the mosquito midgut basal lamina and it has been proposed that components of this structure play a crucial role in the development and maturation of oocysts that produce infective sporozoites. It is further suggested that oocysts incorporate basal lamina proteins into their capsule and that this provides them with a means to evade recognition by the mosquito's immune system. The site of production of basal lamina proteins in insects is controversial and it is still unclear whether haemocytes or midgut epithelial cells are the main source of components of the mosquito midgut basal lamina. Of the multiple molecules that compose the basal lamina, laminin is known to interact with a number of Plasmodium proteins. In this study, the localisation of mosquito laminin within the capsule and cytoplasm of Plasmodium berghei oocysts and in the midgut epithelial cells of Anopheles stephensi was investigated. Results An ultrastructural examination of midgut sections from infected and uninfected An. stephensi was performed. Post-embedded immunogold labelling demonstrated the presence of laminin within the mosquito basal lamina. Laminin was also detected on the outer surface of the oocyst capsule, incorporated within the capsule and associated with sporozoites forming within the oocysts. Laminin was also found within cells of the midgut epithelium, providing support for the hypothesis that these cells contribute towards the formation of the midgut basal lamina. Conclusion We suggest that ookinetes may become coated in laminin as they pass through the midgut epithelium. Thereafter, laminin secreted by midgut epithelial cells and/or haemocytes, binds to the outer surface of the oocyst capsule and that some passes through and is incorporated into the developing oocysts. The localisation of laminin on sporozoites was unexpected and the importance of this observation is less clear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adéla Nacer
- Centre for Applied Entomology and Parasitology, Institute for Science and Technology in Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK.
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Sherman IW. References. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-308x(08)00430-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Schrevel J, Asfaux-Foucher G, Hopkins JM, Robert V, Bourgouin C, Prensier G, Bannister LH. Vesicle trafficking during sporozoite development in Plasmodium berghei: ultrastructural evidence for a novel trafficking mechanism. Parasitology 2007; 135:1-12. [PMID: 17908361 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182007003629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Oocysts from Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes fed on murine blood infected with Plasmodium berghei berghei, were fixed for electron microscopy 6-12 days post-feeding. Ultrastructural analysis focused on Golgi-related trafficking pathways for rhoptry and microneme formation during sporogony. A small Golgi complex of 1-3 cisternae is formed close to the spindle pole body from coated vesicles budded from the nuclear envelope which is confluent with the endoplasmic reticulum. Rhoptries begin as small spheroidal bodies apparently formed by fusion of Golgi-derived vesicles, lengthening to 3-4 microm, and increasing in number to 4 per sporozoite. Ultrastructural data indicate the presence of a novel mechanism for vesicle transport between the Golgi complex and rhoptries along a longitudinal 30 nm - thick fibre (rootlet fibre or tigelle). Filamentous links between vesicles and rootlet indicate that this is a previously undescribed vesicle transport organelle. Genesis of micronemes occurs late in bud maturation and starts as spheroidal dense-cored vesicles (pro-micronemes), transforming to their mature bottle-like shape as they move apically. Filamentous links also occur between micronemes and subpellicular microtubules, indicating that as in merozoites, micronemes are trafficked actively along these structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Schrevel
- Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, USM 504 Biologie fonctionnelle des Protozoaires, EA 3335, CP 52, 61 Rue Buffon, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
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Bano N, Romano JD, Jayabalasingham B, Coppens I. Cellular interactions of Plasmodium liver stage with its host mammalian cell. Int J Parasitol 2007; 37:1329-41. [PMID: 17537443 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2007.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2007] [Revised: 03/10/2007] [Accepted: 04/03/2007] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The Plasmodium liver forms are bridgehead stages between the mosquito sporozoite stages and mammalian blood stages that instigate the malaria disease. In hepatocytes, Plasmodium achieves one of the fastest growth rates among eukaryotic cells. However, nothing is known about host hepatic cell interactions, e.g. nutrient scavenging and/or subversion of cellular functions necessary for Plasmodium development and replication. Plasmodium usually invades hepatocytes by establishing a parasitophorous vacuole wherein it undergoes multiple nuclear division cycles. We show that Plasmodium preferentially develops in the host juxtanuclear region. By comparison with the parasitophorous vacuole of other apicomplexan parasites which associate with diverse host organelles, the Plasmodium parasitophorous vacuole only forms an association with the host endoplasmic reticulum. Intrahepatic Plasmodium actively modifies the permeability of its vacuole to allow the transfer of a large variety of molecules from the host cytosol to the vacuolar space through open channels. In contrast with malaria blood stages, the pores within the parasitophorous vacuole membrane of the liver stage display a smaller size as they restrict the passage of solutes to less than 855Da. These pores are stably maintained during parasite karyokinesis until complete cellularisation. Host-derived cholesterol accumulated at the parasitophorous vacuole membrane may modulate the channel activity. These observations define the parasitophorous vacuole of the Plasmodium liver stage as a dynamic and highly permeable compartment that can ensure the sustained supply of host molecules to support parasite growth in the nutrient-rich environment of liver cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazneen Bano
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, The Malaria Research Institute, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Matuschewski K. Getting infectious: formation and maturation of Plasmodium sporozoites in the Anopheles vector. Cell Microbiol 2006; 8:1547-56. [PMID: 16984410 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2006.00778.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Research on Plasmodium sporozoite biology aims at understanding the developmental program steering the formation of mature infectious sporozoites - the transmission stage of the malaria parasite. The recent identification of genes that are vital for sporozoite egress from oocysts and subsequent targeting and transmigration of the mosquito salivary glands allows the identification of mosquito factors required for life cycle completion. Mature sporozoites appear to be equipped with the entire molecular repertoire for successful transmission and subsequent initiation of liver stage development. Innovative malaria intervention strategies that target the early, non-pathogenic phases of the life cycle will crucially depend on our insights into sporozoite biology and the underlying molecular mechanisms that lead the parasite from the mosquito midgut to the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Matuschewski
- Department of Parasitology, Heidelberg University School of Medicine, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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Vlachou D, Schlegelmilch T, Runn E, Mendes A, Kafatos FC. The developmental migration of Plasmodium in mosquitoes. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2006; 16:384-91. [PMID: 16793259 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2006.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2006] [Accepted: 06/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Migration of the protozoan parasite Plasmodium through the mosquito is a complex and delicate process, the outcome of which determines the success of malaria transmission. The mosquito is not simply the vector of Plasmodium but, in terms of the life cycle, its definitive host: there, the parasite undergoes its sexual development, which results in colonization of the mosquito salivary glands. Two of the parasite's developmental stages in the mosquito, the ookinete and the sporozoite, are invasive and depend on gliding motility to access, penetrate and traverse their host cells. Recent advances in the field have included the identification of numerous Plasmodium molecules that are essential for parasite migration in the mosquito vector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina Vlachou
- Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.
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Tewari R, Rathore D, Crisanti A. Motility and infectivity of Plasmodium berghei sporozoites expressing avian Plasmodium gallinaceum circumsporozoite protein. Cell Microbiol 2006; 7:699-707. [PMID: 15839899 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2005.00503.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Avian and rodent malaria sporozoites selectively invade different vertebrate cell types, namely macrophages and hepatocytes, and develop in distantly related vector species. To investigate the role of the circumsporozoite (CS) protein in determining parasite survival in different vector species and vertebrate host cell types, we replaced the endogenous CS protein gene of the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei with that of the avian parasite P. gallinaceum and control rodent parasite P. yoelii. In anopheline mosquitoes, P. berghei parasites carrying P. gallinaceum and rodent parasite P. yoelii CS protein gene developed into oocysts and sporozoites. Plasmodium gallinaceum CS expressing transgenic sporozoites, although motile, failed to invade mosquito salivary glands and to infect mice, which suggests that motility alone is not sufficient for invasion. Notably, a percentage of infected Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes showed melanotic encapsulation of late stage oocysts. This was not observed in control infections or in A. gambiae infections. These findings shed new light on the role of the CS protein in the interaction of the parasite with both the mosquito vector and the rodent host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Tewari
- Department of Biological Sciences, SAF Building, Imperial College, Imperial College Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
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Jesuíno BS, Casimiro C, do Rosário VE, Silveira H. Effect of antibodies on the expression of Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein gene. Int J Med Sci 2006; 3:7-10. [PMID: 16421624 PMCID: PMC1332198 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.3.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2005] [Accepted: 12/18/2005] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibodies are known to play an important role in the control of malaria infection. However, they can modulate parasite development enhancing infection. The effect of anti-Plasmodium antibodies on the expression of circumsporozoite protein gene (csp) was investigated. Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 in vitro cultures were submitted to: i) anti- circumsporozoite protein monoclonal antibody (anti-CSP-mAb) [1microg/ml, 0.1microg/ml, 0.01microg/ml and 0.001microg/ml] and ii) purified IgG Fab fragment from a pool of malaria patients [1mg/ml and 1microg/ml]; and compared to control cultures. After 24h the number of ring infected erythrocytes was determined in order to calculate invasion efficacy. At 48h culture supernatant was collected, and the amount of circumsporozoite protein determined by ELISA, parasitaemia was calculated and cells were processed for RNA preparation. Expression of csp gene was quantified using Real time RT-PCR. There was an increase in parasite growth when treated with lower anti-CSP-mAb concentration, which was associated with lower csp expression, while 1mug/ml anti-CSP-mAb treatment presented a growth inhibitory effect accompanied by high csp expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- B S Jesuíno
- Centro de Malária e Outras Doenças Tropicais, UEI Malária, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Rua da Junqueira, 96, 1349-008 Lisbon, Portugal
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Wang Q, Fujioka H, Nussenzweig V. Mutational analysis of the GPI-anchor addition sequence from the circumsporozoite protein of Plasmodium. Cell Microbiol 2005; 7:1616-26. [PMID: 16207248 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2005.00579.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The plasma membrane of Plasmodium sporozoites is uniformly covered by the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored circumsporozoite (CS) protein. Sporozoites form in the mosquito midgut through a budding process that occurs within a multinucleate oocyst underneath the basal lamina of the gut. Earlier genetic studies established that normal sporozoite development requires CS. Mutant parasites lacking CS [CS (-)] do not form sporozoites. Ultrastructural analysis of the oocysts from these parasites revealed that there is an early block in the cytokinesis that occurs within the multinucleate oocysts to generate individual sporozoites. Parasites that are hypomorphic for CS expression gave rise to sporozoites with abnormal morphology. These results proved that CS plays a direct role in the maturation of oocysts and in the normal budding of sporozoites. In this article, we examined if the membrane localization of CS via a GPI-anchor, is crucial for its function during sporozoite formation. We generated three mutants in Plasmodium berghei CS, CS-DeltaGPI, CS-TM1 and CS-TM2. In CS-DeltaGPI, we deleted the signal sequence required for the addition of a GPI-anchor to CS. The resulting protein was found only in the cytoplasm of the oocyst. In CS-TM1 and CS-TM2, the GPI-anchor addition sequence of CS was substituted by the transmembrane domain and truncated (to different degrees) cytoplasmic tail of Plasmodium thrombospondin-related anonymous protein (TRAP). The resulting CS protein was detected on the plasma membrane of the oocysts. The amount of CS in the mutants was similar to that of wild type. The sporozoite budding and development were abrogated in both CS-DeltaGPI and CS-TM mutants. The ultrastructure of the mutant oocysts was indistinguishable from that of the CS (-) parasites. Our results suggest that the GPI-anchor of the CS protein is required for sporogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Wang
- Department of Pathology, Michael Heidelberger Division of Immunology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA.
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Engelmann S, Sinnis P, Matuschewski K. Transgenic Plasmodium berghei sporozoites expressing beta-galactosidase for quantification of sporozoite transmission. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2005; 146:30-7. [PMID: 16316690 PMCID: PMC1853313 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2005.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2005] [Revised: 10/12/2005] [Accepted: 10/19/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Malaria transmission occurs during a blood-meal of an infected Anopheles mosquito. Visualization and quantification of sporozoites along the journey from the mosquito midgut, where they develop, to the vertebrate liver, their final target organ, is important for understanding many aspects of sporozoite biology. Here we describe the generation of Plasmodium berghei parasites that express the reporter gene lacZ as a stable transgene, under the control of the sporozoite-specific CSP promoter. Transgenic sporozoites expressing beta-galactosidase can be simply visualized and quantified in an enzymatic assay. In addition, these sporozoites can be used to quantify sporozoites deposited in subcutaneous tissue during natural infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Engelmann
- Department of Parasitology, Heidelberg University School of Medicine, INF 324, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Photini Sinnis
- Department of Medical and Molecular Parasitology, New York University School of Medicine, 341 E. 25th St., New York, NY 10010, USA
- * Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 212 263 6818; fax: +1 212 263 8116
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- Department of Parasitology, Heidelberg University School of Medicine, INF 324, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- ** Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 6221 568284; fax: +49 6221 564643
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Wang Q, Fujioka H, Nussenzweig V. Exit of Plasmodium sporozoites from oocysts is an active process that involves the circumsporozoite protein. PLoS Pathog 2005; 1:e9. [PMID: 16201021 PMCID: PMC1238744 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.0010009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2005] [Accepted: 08/03/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoites develop within oocysts residing in the mosquito midgut. Mature sporozoites exit the oocysts, enter the hemolymph, and invade the salivary glands. The circumsporozoite (CS) protein is the major surface protein of salivary gland and oocyst sporozoites. It is also found on the oocyst plasma membrane and on the inner surface of the oocyst capsule. CS protein contains a conserved motif of positively charged amino acids: region II-plus, which has been implicated in the initial stages of sporozoite invasion of hepatocytes. We investigated the function of region II-plus by generating mutant parasites in which the region had been substituted with alanines. Mutant parasites produced normal numbers of sporozoites in the oocysts, but the sporozoites were unable to exit the oocysts. In in vitro as well, there was a profound delay, upon trypsin treatment, in the release of mutant sporozoites from oocysts. We conclude that the exit of sporozoites from oocysts is an active process that involves the region II-plus of CS protein. In addition, the mutant sporozoites were not infective to young rats. These findings provide a new target for developing reagents that interfere with the transmission of malaria. Malaria affects hundreds of millions of people, and kills at least 1 million children per year. The infective stages of the malaria parasites, named “sporozoites,” are found in the salivary gland of Anopheles mosquitoes, and are injected along with the saliva during blood feeding. From the skin, sporozoites enter the blood circulation and invade liver cells where the parasites multiply. When they exit the liver, these parasites infect blood cells and can cause severe symptoms. If ingested by mosquitoes, the blood-stage parasites continue their lifecycle in the insect stomach. Thousands of sporozoites are formed within a cyst-like structure (oocyst). The sporozoites come out of the oocyst and infect the salivary gland, where they remain until injected back into humans. Malaria parasites are increasingly resistant to drugs, mosquitoes are difficult to eliminate, and effective vaccines are not yet available. New tools to combat malaria are urgently needed. One exciting approach, although the application is in the distant future, is to release in endemic areas genetically modified mosquitoes that are resistant to parasite growth. This paper provides a new target for generating these “transmission-block” mosquitoes and shows that the exit of sporozoites from the oocysts is an active process that requires the enzymatic digestion of components of the oocyst wall. If these enzymes are inhibited in transgenic mosquitoes, sporozoites will never reach the salivary gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Wang
- Department of Pathology, Michael Heidelberger Division, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America.
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Aly ASI, Matuschewski K. A malarial cysteine protease is necessary for Plasmodium sporozoite egress from oocysts. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 202:225-30. [PMID: 16027235 PMCID: PMC2213010 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20050545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The Plasmodium life cycle is a sequence of alternating invasive and replicative stages within the vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. How malarial parasites exit their host cells after completion of reproduction remains largely unsolved. Inhibitor studies indicated a role of Plasmodium cysteine proteases in merozoite release from host erythrocytes. To validate a vital function of malarial cysteine proteases in active parasite egress, we searched for target genes that can be analyzed functionally by reverse genetics. Herein, we describe a complete arrest of Plasmodium sporozoite egress from Anopheles midgut oocysts by targeted disruption of a stage-specific cysteine protease. Our findings show that sporozoites exit oocysts by parasite-dependent proteolysis rather than by passive oocyst rupture resulting from parasite growth. We provide genetic proof that malarial cysteine proteases are necessary for egress of invasive stages from their intracellular compartment and propose that similar cysteine protease–dependent mechanisms occur during egress from liver-stage and blood-stage schizonts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed S I Aly
- Department of Parasitology, Heidelberg University School of Medicine, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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