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Abstract
Atrial fibrillation is the most common dysrhythmia encountered in clinical practice. For some patients, satisfactory rate control is not possible by pharmacologic means. This led us to develop a surgical approach to its cure, which in turn has led to a deeper understanding of the electrophysiologic basis of atrial fibrillation and to the development of a surgical procedure that is highly effective in restoring sinus rhythm with an acceptable mortality and morbidity. We review these findings as well as the clinical results obtained with the Maze procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Cox
- Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, Barnes-Jewish Hospital, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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Iwane M, Shibe Y, Itoh K, Kinoshita F, Kanagawa Y, Kobayashi M, Mugitani K, Ohta M, Ohata H, Yoshikawa A, Ikuta Z, Nakamura Y, Mohara O. [Silent myocardial ischemia and exercise-induced arrhythmia detected by the exercise test in the total health promotion plan (THP)]. SANGYO EISEIGAKU ZASSHI = JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH 2001; 43:32-9. [PMID: 11329953 DOI: 10.1539/sangyoeisei.kj00002552452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/16/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the prevalence and characteristics of ischemic heart disease especially silent myocardial ischemia (SMI) and arrhythmia in need of careful observation in the exercise stress tests in the Total Health Promotion Plan (THP), which was conducted between 1994-96 for the purpose of measuring cardiopulmonary function. All workers (n = 4,918, 4,426 males) aged 18-60 yr old in an occupational field were studied. Exercise tests with an ergometer were performed by the LOPS protocol, in which the maximal workload was set up as a presumed 70-80% maximal oxygen intake, or STEP (original multistage protocol). ECG changes were evaluated with a CC5 lead. Two hundred and fifteen people refused the study because of a common cold, lumbago and so on. Of 4,703 subjects, 17 with abnormal rest ECG and 19 with probable anginal pain were excluded from the exercise tests. Of 4,667 who underwent the exercise test, 37 (0.79%) had ischemic ECG change, and 155 (3.32%) had striking arrhythmia. These 228 subjects then did a treadmill exercise test with Bruce protocol. Twenty-two (0.47% of 4,703) showed positive ECG change, 9 (0.19%) of 22 had abnormal findings on a 201Tl scan. 8 (0.17%) were diagnosed as SMI (Cohn I), in which the prevalence of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, smoker and positive familial history of ischemic heart disease was greater than that of all subjects. In a 15-30 month follow up, none has developed cardiac accidents. Exercise-induced arrhythmia was detected in 11 (0.23%) subjects. Four were non-sustained ventricular tachycardia without any organic disease, 4 were ventricular arrhythmia based on cardiomyopathy detected by echocardiography, 2 were atrial fibrillation and another was WPW syndrome. It is therefore likely that the ergometer exercise test in THP was effective in preventing sudden death caused by ischemic heart disease or striking arrhythmia.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Iwane
- Wakayama Wellness Foundation, 1850 Minato, Wakayama 640-8555, Japan
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Cox JL, Schuessler RB, Boineau JP. The development of the Maze procedure for the treatment of atrial fibrillation. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2000; 12:2-14. [PMID: 10746916 DOI: 10.1016/s1043-0679(00)70010-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The Maze procedure was developed for the treatment of atrial fibrillation over a period of several years. Extensive experimental and clinical studies of the underlying electrophysiology of the arrhythmia were performed, and numerous surgical techniques and principles were tried before the Maze procedure was conceived. Few cardiac surgical procedures have undergone more extensive research and experimental trials before being applied clinically. This article gives a brief summary of the work leading up to the eventual Maze-III procedure that is now in clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Cox
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20007, USA
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Izumoto H, Kawazoe K, Kitahara H, Kamata J. Operative results after the Cox/maze procedure combined with a mitral valve operation. Ann Thorac Surg 1998; 66:800-4. [PMID: 9768933 DOI: 10.1016/s0003-4975(98)00590-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There have been few reports on postoperative morbidity and mortality analyses after concomitant mitral valve operation and the Cox/maze procedure. METHODS Between April 1993 and August 1995, 87 consecutive patients with chronic atrial fibrillation underwent a mitral valve operation and concomitant Cox/maze procedure at Iwate Medical University. The patients were divided into the replacement group (n = 31) and repair group (n = 56) according to the method of mitral valve replacement. Our initial experience with the combined operative procedures is presented along with the operative mortality and morbidity rates. Univariate analysis on preoperative and intraoperative variables affecting early mortality and morbidity is carried out retrospectively. RESULTS Total cardiopulmonary bypass time in all patients was 177.2 +/- 70.1 minutes. Total aortic cross-clamp time was 121.7 +/- 30.8 minutes. Total intensive care unit stay was 5.3 +/- 7.9 days. The average intubation period was 55.5 +/- 187.6 hours. The intensive care unit stay and the intubation period of the replacement group were longer than those of the repair group. There were four operative deaths among the 87 patients (4.6%). All repair group patients survived operation, whereas 4 replacement group patients died after operation. In all patients, the New York Heart Association functional class was higher (p = 0.028) in those who died than in those who survived. The overall restoration rate from atrial fibrillation was 79.5% (66 of 83 survivors). Seventeen patients (20.5%) had persistent atrial fibrillation postoperatively. Sick sinus syndrome occurred in 7 patients (8.4%). In the repair group, the restoration rate was 76.8%, whereas in the replacement group it was 85.2% for the survivors. CONCLUSIONS The Cox/maze procedure can be combined with a mitral valve operation with acceptably low operative risk. Analysis of risk factors of early mortality revealed that the type of mitral valve operation (replacement versus repair) and higher preoperative New York Heart Association functional class were associated with mortality. Long-term results from this combined procedure should be clearly demonstrated before its universal acceptance.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Izumoto
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Iwate Medical University Memorial Heart Center, Iwate Medical University, Morioka, Japan
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Cox JL, Schuessler RB, Lappas DG, Boineau JP. An 8 1/2-year clinical experience with surgery for atrial fibrillation. Ann Surg 1996; 224:267-73; discussion 273-5. [PMID: 8813255 PMCID: PMC1235364 DOI: 10.1097/00000658-199609000-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 298] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The authors analyzed the clinical results during the first 8 1/2 years' experience with the Maze procedure for the surgical treatment of atrial fibrillation. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA Atrial fibrillation occurs in 0.4% to 2% of the general population and in approximately 10% of patients older than 60 years of age. It is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. The irregular heartbeat causes discomfort, the loss of synchronous atrioventricular contraction compromises hemodynamics and the stasis of blood flow increases the vulnerability to thromboembolism. METHODS From September 25, 1987 to March 1, 1996, 178 patients underwent the Maze procedure. Thirty-two patients underwent the Maze-I procedure, 15 underwent the Maze-II procedure, and 118 underwent the Maze-III procedure. Patients were analyzed for recurrence of atrial flutter and atrial fibrillation between 3 months and 8 1/2 years after surgery (n = 164). Patients were analyzed for atrial transport function, sinus nodule function, and postoperative pacemaker requirements. RESULTS Ninety-three percent of all patients were arrhythmia free without any antiarrhythmic medication. Of the remaining patients with arrhythmia recurrence, all were converted to sinus rhythm with medical therapy. All patients were documented to have atrial transport function by either direct visualization, transesophageal echocardiography, or atrioventricular versus ventricular pacing at the same rate. Ninety-eight percent had documented right atrial function, and 94% had left atrial function. Of the 107 patients in this series who were documented to have a normal sinus node preoperatively, only 1 patient required a permanent pacemaker. CONCLUSION The Maze procedure is an effective treatment for medically refractory atrial fibrillation in properly selected patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Cox
- Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, USA
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Baker BM, Smith JM, Cain ME. Nonpharmacologic approaches to the treatment of atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1995; 6:972-8. [PMID: 8548118 DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-8167.1995.tb00373.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The high prevalence of atrial fibrillation, the associated morbidity and mortality, the absence of safe and effective drug therapy, and an increased understanding of the pathophysiologic basis of atrial fibrillation and flutter have collectively led to the development of novel nonpharmacologic treatments for the management of these arrhythmias, including the CORRIDOR and MAZE surgical procedures, catheter-based ablation and modification of AV conduction, catheter-based ablation of atrial flutter and fibrillation, and internal atrial defibrillation. These surgical and catheter-based techniques offer potentially curative therapy while sparing the long-term risk of antiarrhythmic drug therapy. For patients with typical atrial flutter, catheter ablation affords to cure rate in excess of 70%. As technological innovations further facilitate identification and ablation of the critical isthmus in the floor of the right atrium, success rates should improve substantially. For patients with atrial fibrillation, AV junction ablation with implantation of a rate-responsive ventricular pacemaker should be considered palliative therapy, as should modification of AV junction conduction. The MAZE procedure offers very high cure rates, but because it currently involves open heart surgery, patient selection is critical. Catheter-based procedures emulating aspects of the MAZE procedure may one day offer cure rates comparable to those of the surgery itself, but additional research and technological development are necessary to further define and refine the minimal effective procedure, and then to facilitate the placement of contiguous, full-thickness lesions in precise three-dimensional configurations. In the interim, the implantable automatic atrial defibrillator may offer a means for rapidly restoring sinus rhythm without the risks of long-term antiarrhythmic drug therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M Baker
- Cardiovascular Division, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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The electrophysiologic basis, surgical development and clinical results of the maze procedure for atrial flutter and atrial fibrillation. Indian J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02860878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Abstract
Between January 1, 1986, and December 31, 1991, 4,507 adult patients underwent cardiac surgical procedures requiring cardiopulmonary bypass. Of these patients, 3,983 patients who did not undergo operation for supraventricular tachycardia and who were in normal sinus rhythm preoperatively form the study group for the present study. Postoperatively, all patients were monitored continuously for the development of arrhythmias until the time of hospital discharge. The incidence of atrial arrhythmias requiring treatment for the most commonly performed operative procedures were as follows: coronary artery bypass grafting, 31.9%; coronary artery bypass grafting and mitral valve replacement, 63.6%; coronary artery bypass grafting and aortic valve replacement, 48.8%; and heart transplantation, 11.1%. For all patients considered collectively, the risk factors associated with an increased incidence of postoperative atrial arrhythmias (p < 0.05 by multivariate logistic regression) included increasing patient age, preoperative use of digoxin, history of rheumatic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and increasing aortic cross-clamp time. Postoperative atrial fibrillation was associated with an increased incidence of postoperative stroke (3.3% versus 1.4%; p < 0.0005), increased length of hospitalization in the intensive care unit (5.7 versus 3.4 days; p = 0.001) and postoperative nursing ward (10.9 versus 7.5 days; p = 0.0001), increased incidence of postoperative ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation (9.2% versus 4.0%; p < 0.0005), and an increased need for placement of a permanent pacemaker (3.7% versus 1.6%; p < 0.0005). These data provide a basis for targeting specific patient subgroups for prospective, randomized trials of therapeutic modalities designed to decrease the incidence of postoperative atrial arrhythmias.
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Affiliation(s)
- L L Creswell
- Department of Surgery, Barnes Hospital, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
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Bonchek LI, Burlingame MW, Worley SJ, Vazales BE, Lundy EF. Cox/maze procedure for atrial septal defect with atrial fibrillation: management strategies. Ann Thorac Surg 1993; 55:607-10. [PMID: 8452422 DOI: 10.1016/0003-4975(93)90262-g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Atrial fibrillation is found at late follow-up in approximately half of all adults who have had correction of atrial septal defect, even if it was not present preoperatively. These patients are thus exposed to the risks of stroke and chronic drug therapy even after a successful operation. Simultaneous surgical correction of atrial septal defect and atrial fibrillation was accomplished in a 52-year-old man by means of the Cox/maze procedure. The small added risk and the substantial benefit of eliminating atrial fibrillation suggest that this approach is warranted in selected adults with atrial septal defect.
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COX JAMESL, BOINEAU JOHNP, SCHUESSLER RICHARDB, FERGUSON TBRUCE, LINDSAY BRUCED, CAIN MICHAELE, CORR PETERB, KATER KATHYM, LAPPAS DEMETRIOSG. A Review of Surgery for Atrial Fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1991. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-8167.1991.tb01357.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Cox JL, Boineau JP, Schuessler RB, Ferguson TB, Cain ME, Lindsay BD, Corr PB, Kater KM, Lappas DG. Operations for atrial fibrillation. Clin Cardiol 1991; 14:827-34. [PMID: 1954691 DOI: 10.1002/clc.4960141010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Atrial fibrillation is the most common of all sustained cardiac arrhythmias, yet it has no effective medical or surgical therapy. During the past decade, multipoint computerized electrophysiological mapping systems were used to map both experimental and human atrial fibrillation. On the basis of these studies, a new surgical procedure was developed for atrial fibrillation. Between September 25, 1987, and May 1, 1991, this procedure was applied in 22 patients with either paroxysmal atrial flutter (n = 2), paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (n = 11), or chronic atrial fibrillation (n = 9) of 2 to 21 years' duration. All patients were refractory to all antiarrhythmic medications and each patient failed an average of 5.2 drugs preoperatively. There were no operative deaths and all perioperative morbidity resolved. All 22 patients have been cured of atrial fibrillation with surgery alone. One late isolated episode of atrial flutter occurred in a patient who is now receiving encainide. Preservation of atrial transport function has been documented in all of the patients postoperatively and all have experienced marked clinical improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Cox
- Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, Barnes Hospital, St. Louis, MO 63110
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Cox JL, Schuessler RB, D’Agostino HJ, Stone CM, Chang BC, Cain ME, Corr PB, Boineau JP. The surgical treatment of atrial fibrillation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5223(19)36684-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 809] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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