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Kim D, Saada A. The social determinants of infant mortality and birth outcomes in Western developed nations: a cross-country systematic review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2013; 10:2296-335. [PMID: 23739649 PMCID: PMC3717738 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph10062296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2013] [Revised: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Infant mortality (IM) and birth outcomes, key population health indicators, have lifelong implications for individuals, and are unequally distributed globally. Even among western industrialized nations, striking cross-country and within-country patterns are evident. We sought to better understand these variations across and within the United States of America (USA) and Western Europe (WE), by conceptualizing a social determinants of IM/birth outcomes framework, and systematically reviewing the empirical literature on hypothesized social determinants (e.g., social policies, neighbourhood deprivation, individual socioeconomic status (SES)) and intermediary determinants (e.g., health behaviours). To date, the evidence suggests that income inequality and social policies (e.g., maternal leave policies) may help to explain cross-country variations in IM/birth outcomes. Within countries, the evidence also supports neighbourhood SES (USA, WE) and income inequality (USA) as social determinants. By contrast, within-country social cohesion/social capital has been underexplored. At the individual level, mixed associations have been found between individual SES, race/ethnicity, and selected intermediary factors (e.g., psychosocial factors) with IM/birth outcomes. Meanwhile, this review identifies several methodological gaps, including the underuse of prospective designs and the presence of residual confounding in a number of studies. Ultimately, addressing such gaps including through novel approaches to strengthen causal inference and implementing both health and non-health policies may reduce inequities in IM/birth outcomes across the western developed world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Kim
- Behavioural and Policy Sciences Department, RAND Corporation, 20 Park Plaza, Suite 920, Boston, MA 02116, USA
- Department of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Santé Publique, Rennes 35043, France
| | - Adrianna Saada
- Center for Health Decision Science, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA; E-Mail:
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Dallolio L, Lenzi J, Fantini MP. Temporal and geographical trends in infant, neonatal and post-neonatal mortality in Italy between 1991 and 2009. Ital J Pediatr 2013; 39:19. [PMID: 23506567 PMCID: PMC3607921 DOI: 10.1186/1824-7288-39-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2013] [Accepted: 03/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infant mortality is a key indicator of child and population health. The aim of this study is to analyse the trends in infant mortality rates (IMRs) and their components (neonatal mortality rates-NMRs and post-neonatal mortality rates-PNMRs) from 1991 to 2009 both at the national level and across the three Italian large geographical macro-areas (North, Center, South). METHODS Using data extracted from the Health for All-Italy database, IMRs, NMRs and PNMRs were calculated for the 19 Italian Regions and 2 Autonomous provinces for the years 1991-2009. Relative risks and attributable fractions were calculated for Southern and Central Italy compared with Northern Italy. Temporal trends were analysed using the robust polynomial Poisson regression models. RESULTS During the study period there was a 54% decline in IMR (from 7.72/1000 to 3.55/1000), a 57% decline in NMR (from 5.87/1000 to 2.55/1000) and a 46% decline in PNMR (from 1.85/1000 to 1/1000). In particular, we found a strong decline in IMRs and NMRs from 1991 to 2000/2001, and a weaker decline starting from 2002/2003. Moreover, we found a slight decrease in PNMRs until 2001/2002, and no significant variations starting from 2003. Despite these reductions, important geographical variations persisted: in 2006-2009, the most recent data available, the excess of infant mortality in Southern Italy compared with the North was 27%. CONCLUSIONS During the period 1991-2009 Italy experienced a significant decline in IMRs, NMRs and PNMRs. We observed the same pattern for the temporal trends of these indicators across the North, the Center and South of Italy. Despite this decline, geographical disparities persisted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Dallolio
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, via San Giacomo 12, Bologna, 40126, Italy
| | - Jacopo Lenzi
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, via San Giacomo 12, Bologna, 40126, Italy
| | - Maria Pia Fantini
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, via San Giacomo 12, Bologna, 40126, Italy
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Dallolio L, Di Gregori V, Lenzi J, Franchino G, Calugi S, Domenighetti G, Fantini MP. Socio-economic factors associated with infant mortality in Italy: an ecological study. Int J Equity Health 2012; 11:45. [PMID: 22898293 PMCID: PMC3492165 DOI: 10.1186/1475-9276-11-45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2012] [Accepted: 08/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION One issue that continues to attract the attention of public health researchers is the possible relationship in high-income countries between income, income inequality and infant mortality (IM). The aim of this study was to assess the associations between IM and major socio-economic determinants in Italy. METHODS Associations between infant mortality rates in the 20 Italian regions (2006-2008) and the Gini index of income inequality, mean household income, percentage of women with at least 8 years of education, and percentage of unemployed aged 15-64 years were assessed using Pearson correlation coefficients. Univariate linear regression and multiple stepwise linear regression analyses were performed to determine the magnitude and direction of the effect of the four socio-economic variables on IM. RESULTS The Gini index and the total unemployment rate showed a positive strong correlation with IM (r = 0.70; p < 0.001 and r = 0.84; p < 0.001 respectively), mean household income showed a strong negative correlation (r = -0.78; p < 0.001), while female educational attainment presented a weak negative correlation (r = -0.45; p < 0.05). Using a multiple stepwise linear regression model, only unemployment rate was independently associated with IM (b = 0.15, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS In Italy, a high-income country where health care is universally available, variations in IM were strongly associated with relative and absolute income and unemployment rate. These results suggest that in Italy IM is not only related to income distribution, as demonstrated for other developed countries, but also to economic factors such as absolute income and unemployment. In order to reduce IM and the existing inequalities, the challenge for Italian decision makers is to promote economic growth and enhance employment levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Dallolio
- Department of Medicine and Public Health, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, via San Giacomo 12, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Valentina Di Gregori
- Department of Medicine and Public Health, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, via San Giacomo 12, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Jacopo Lenzi
- Department of Medicine and Public Health, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, via San Giacomo 12, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Franchino
- Department of Medicine and Public Health, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, via San Giacomo 12, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Simona Calugi
- Department of Medicine and Public Health, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, via San Giacomo 12, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Domenighetti
- Institute of Public Communication and Education (ICIeF), Institute of Microeconomics and Public Economics (MECOP), University of Lugano, via Buffi 13, 6900, Lugano, Switzerland
| | - Maria Pia Fantini
- Department of Medicine and Public Health, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, via San Giacomo 12, 40126, Bologna, Italy
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Mazzucco W, Cusimano R, Macaluso M, La Scola C, Fiumanò G, Scondotto S, Cernigliaro A, Corsello G, La Torre G, Vitale F. A retrospective follow up study on maternal age and infant mortality in two Sicilian districts. BMC Public Health 2011; 11:817. [PMID: 22011347 PMCID: PMC3206483 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-11-817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2010] [Accepted: 10/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infant mortality rate (IMR) is a key public health indicator. Maternal age is a well-known determinant of pregnancy and delivery complications and of infant morbidity and mortality. In Italy the Infant Mortality Rate was 3.7/1000 during 2005, lower than the average IMR for the European Union (4.94/1000). Sicily is the Italian region with the highest IMR, 5/1000, and neonatal mortality rate (NMR), 3.8/1000, with substantial variation among its nine districts. The present study compared a high IMR/NMR district (Messina) with a low IMR/NMR district (Palermo) during the period 2004-2006 to evaluate potential determinants of the IMRs' differences between the two districts and specifically the impact of maternal age. METHODS The Death Causes Registers identified all deaths during the first year of life recorded among infants born to residents of the two districts in 2004-2006. For every case, available hospital charts records were abstracted using a standardized form designed to capture information on potential determinants of infant death. For each district and for each year, IMRs and NMRs were computed. Chi-squared statistics tested the significance of differences between district-specific IMRs. A Poisson regression model was used to analyze the relationship between maternal age, district of residence and IMR. RESULTS The 246 death registry-confirmed cases included 143 (58.1%) males and 103 (41.2%) females, with mean age at death of 33.3 days (SD: 64.5, median: 5.5). The average IMR for 2004-2006 was significantly higher for the Messina district than for the Palermo district (p = 0.0001). The IMR ratio was 1.6 (95%CI: 1.2 - 2.1). The IMRs declined from 2004 to 2006. A significant interaction (p = 0.04) between maternal age and district of residence was documented. CONCLUSION The association between advanced maternal age and infant deaths in the Messina district was due in part to the excess of newborns from advanced age mothers, but also to increased risk of death among such newborns. The significant interaction between district of residence and maternal age indicated that the IMR excess in the Messina district cannot be explained by disproportionately high live birth rates among older mothers and suggested the hypothesis that health care facilities in the Messina district could be less well prepared to provide assistance to the excess of high risk pregnancies and deliveries, as compared to Palermo district.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Mazzucco
- Department of Health Promotion Sciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy.
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Rosicova K, Madarasova Geckova A, van Dijk JP, Kollarova J, Rosic M, Groothoff JW. Regional socioeconomic indicators and ethnicity as predictors of regional infant mortality rate in Slovakia. Int J Public Health 2011; 56:523-31. [PMID: 20976517 PMCID: PMC3174369 DOI: 10.1007/s00038-010-0199-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2009] [Revised: 04/29/2010] [Accepted: 09/12/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Exploring the associations of regional differences in infant mortality with selected socioeconomic indicators and ethnicity could offer important clues for designing public health policy measures. METHODS Data included perinatal and infant mortality in the 79 districts of the Slovak population in 2004. Linear regression was used to analyse the contribution of education, unemployment, income and proportion of Roma population on regional differences in perinatal and infant mortality rates. RESULTS All the explored socioeconomic indicators and ethnicity individually contributed significantly to both perinatal and infant mortality, with the exception of income. In the model exploring the influence of all these variables together on perinatal and infant mortality, only the effect of the proportion of Roma population remained significant. This model explained 34.9% of the variance for perinatal and 36.4% of the variance for infant mortality. CONCLUSIONS Living in Roma settlements indicates an accumulation of socioeconomic disadvantage. Health literacy, health-related behaviour and many other factors might contribute to the explanation of the differences in infant mortality, and a better understanding of these processes might help us to design tailored interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Rosicova
- Kosice Self-Governing Region, Department of Regional Development and Land-Use Planning, Kosice, Slovakia.
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Abstract
Despite impressive worldwide improvements in oral health, inequalities in oral health status among and within countries remain a daunting public health challenge. Oral health inequalities arise from a complex web of health determinants, including social, behavioral, economic, genetic, environmental, and health system factors. Eliminating these inequalities cannot be accomplished in isolation of oral health from overall health, or without recognizing that oral health is influenced at multiple individual, family, community, and health systems levels. For several reasons, this is an opportune time for global efforts targeted at reducing oral health inequalities. Global health is increasingly viewed not just as a humanitarian obligation, but also as a vehicle for health diplomacy and part of the broader mission to reduce poverty, build stronger economies, and strengthen global security. Despite the global economic recession, there are trends that portend well for support of global health efforts: increased globalization of research and development, growing investment from private philanthropy, an absolute growth of spending in research and innovation, and an enhanced interest in global health among young people. More systematic and far-reaching efforts will be required to address oral health inequalities through the engagement of oral health funders and sponsors of research, with partners from multiple public and private sectors. The oral health community must be "at the table" with other health disciplines and create opportunities for eliminating inequalities through collaborations that can harness both the intellectual and financial resources of multiple sectors and institutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Garcia
- National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-2190, USA.
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De Vogli R, Gimeno D, Kivimaki M. Socioeconomic inequalities in health in 22 European countries. N Engl J Med 2008; 359:1290; author reply 1290-1. [PMID: 18799564 DOI: 10.1056/nejmc081414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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