1
|
Villagrán AM, Santirso FA, Lila M, Gracia E. Attitudes Toward Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Latin America: A Systematic Review. TRAUMA, VIOLENCE & ABUSE 2024; 25:2065-2077. [PMID: 37897366 DOI: 10.1177/15248380231205825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/30/2023]
Abstract
Attitudes toward intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) are being increasingly recognized as a central issue for comprehensively understanding this complex phenomenon. While IPVAW remains widespread in Latin America, knowledge about it and research on attitudes toward IPVAW are limited. This systematic review synthesized quantitative peer-reviewed studies that address attitudes toward IPVAW in Latin America. The review was conducted between April 2020 and July 2022 in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses recommendations using the Web of Science, Scopus, and PsycINFO databases. In total, 52 of the 149 eligible articles were selected based on the inclusion criteria. Four sets of attitudes toward IPVAW were identified: legitimacy, acceptability, attitudes toward the intervention, and perceived severity. Attitude correlates were the most common research topic in more than half of the studies but were generally focused on a single country. Among the few multi-country studies, the sample of Latin American countries was small. The remaining studies were divided into three research themes: attitude as a predictor, interventions for attitude change, and scale validation. Our study aims to motivate future research on the identified knowledge gaps and may be useful for the implementation of appropriate prevention policies and intervention programs to counter IPVAW on a regional scale.
Collapse
|
2
|
Green J, Yamawaki N, Wang ANY, Castillo SE, Nohagi Y, Saldarriaga M. What Matters When Examining Attitudes of Economic Abuse? Gender and Student Status as Predictors of Blaming, Minimizing, and Excusing Economic Abuse. JOURNAL OF FAMILY AND ECONOMIC ISSUES 2022; 44:1-14. [PMID: 36034328 PMCID: PMC9392858 DOI: 10.1007/s10834-022-09859-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Extensive research has been conducted regarding attitudes toward various types and patterns of violence against intimate partners, but there is a lack of research on attitudes toward economic abuse in general. In the current study, we examined attitudes toward economic abuse by examining how participants blamed the victim, minimized the economic abuse, and excused the perpetrator in hypothetical scenarios. We also examined two characteristics of participants: binary gender differences (i.e., woman, man) and differences between students and non-students. Participants (N = 239) were recruited via the SONA system of a private university (n = 120) and via Amazon's Mechanical Turk (n = 119). Participants were randomly assigned to read one of two hypothetical scenarios to evaluate how scenario condition (i.e., victim employed, victim unemployed), participant gender, and participant student status predicted attitudes toward economic abuse involving blaming, minimizing, and excusing. Moreover, we also examined ambivalent sexism and gender role ideology as predictors. A 2 (scenario condition: job, no job) × 2 (participant gender: woman, man) × 2 (student status: college student, non-college student) MANOVA indicated main effects of both participant gender and participant student status. Follow-up ANOVAs revealed that men were more likely to blame victims, minimize the economic abuse, and excuse perpetrators compared to women. Additionally, students were less likely to minimize the economic abuse compared to non-students. Moreover, both hostile sexism and traditional gender role ideology were significant predictors. Implications of the findings and future directions for researchers are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jane Green
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT USA
| | - Niwako Yamawaki
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT USA
| | | | | | - Yuki Nohagi
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Briones-Vozmediano E, Castellanos-Torres E, Goicolea I, Vives-Cases C. Challenges to Detecting and Addressing Intimate Partner Violence Among Roma Women in Spain: Perspectives of Primary Care Providers. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2021; 36:NP10433-NP10452. [PMID: 31524040 DOI: 10.1177/0886260519872299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study is to identify challenges and facilitators for detecting and addressing cases of intimate partner violence (IPV) against Roma women, from the perspectives of health personnel and representatives of Roma organizations, and to compare both perspectives. A total of 28 semi-structured interviews were carried out between November 2014 and February 2015 in different Spanish cities. A thematic analysis was carried out, guided by Aday and Andersen's model regarding barriers to access to health services. Both groups signaled the following as principal challenges: (a) consideration of IPV as a private problem among the Roma population, (b) little use of primary care providers for prevention, (c) distrust of Roma women toward primary care professionals as resources for seeking help, (d) the inexistence of Roma professionals in health services, (e) health professionals' lack of cultural sensitivity related to Roma people, and (f) the focus of health protocols for action against IPV on filing a police report. Potential facilitating factors included Roma women's trust in nurses, social workers, and pediatricians and ethnic heterogeneity. There is need to promote action to address the identified challenges through a health equity approach that includes greater training and awareness raising among health professionals about Roma culture and the specific needs of Roma women.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Briones-Vozmediano
- Faculty and Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, University of Lleida, Spain
- Biomedical Research Institute (IRB), Lleida, Spain
- Public Health Research Group of the University of Alicante, University of Alicante, Spain
| | - E Castellanos-Torres
- Public Health Research Group of the University of Alicante, University of Alicante, Spain
| | - I Goicolea
- Public Health Research Group of the University of Alicante, University of Alicante, Spain
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Umeå University, Sweden
| | - C Vives-Cases
- Public Health Research Group of the University of Alicante, University of Alicante, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ivert AK, Gracia E, Lila M, Wemrell M, Merlo J. Does country-level gender equality explain individual risk of intimate partner violence against women? A multilevel analysis of individual heterogeneity and discriminatory accuracy (MAIHDA) in the European Union. Eur J Public Health 2021; 30:293-299. [PMID: 31549148 PMCID: PMC7183361 DOI: 10.1093/eurpub/ckz162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Gender equality is widely accepted as an important explanatory factor for the occurrence of intimate partner violence (IPV) against women. However, the relationship is not straightforward, as high country-level gender equality is not always associated with lower IPV prevalence. We apply ‘multilevel analysis of individual heterogeneity and discriminatory accuracy’ (MAIHDA) to (i) quantify the extent to which the country of residence determines individual risk of IPV and (ii) investigate the association between country-level gender equality and individual experience of IPV, and to which extent this association explains the observed between-country differences. Methods Using data from the 2012 European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights survey on violence against women we applied MAIHDA to analyse experiences of physical and sexual IPV among 42 000 women living in the EU. We fitted three consecutive models, and calculated specific individual contextual effects (measures of association) as well as the general contextual effects (measures of variance) and the discriminatory accuracy (DA). Results Our findings show that the relationship between experiences of IPV and country-level gender equality is weak and heterogeneous. The general contextual effect is small and the DA is low, indicating that country boundaries are rather irrelevant for understanding the individual risk of IPV. Conclusions Findings from the present study do not imply that that gender equality is unimportant in relation to IPV, but rather that information on country of residence or country-level gender equality does not discriminate very well with regards to individual experiences of IPV in cross-national comparisons.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Karin Ivert
- Research Unit of Social Epidemiology, CRC, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden.,Department of Criminology, Faculty of Health and Society, Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Enrique Gracia
- Department of Social Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Marisol Lila
- Department of Social Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Maria Wemrell
- Research Unit of Social Epidemiology, CRC, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden.,Department of Gender Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Juan Merlo
- Research Unit of Social Epidemiology, CRC, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden.,Center for Primary Health Care Research, Region Skåne, Malmö, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Yang M, Beybutyan A, Ríos RP, Soria-Verde MÁ. Public Attitudes towards Intimate Partner Violence against Women and Influential Factors in China and Spain. ANUARIO DE PSICOLOGÍA JURÍDICA 2021. [DOI: 10.5093/apj2021a13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
|
6
|
Serrano-Montilla C, Lozano LM, Bender M, Padilla JL. Individual and societal risk factors of attitudes justifying intimate partner violence against women: a multilevel cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 2020; 10:e037993. [PMID: 33303434 PMCID: PMC7733202 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-037993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Attitudes justifying intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) can play an essential role in explaining the prevalence of such public health problem. The study aim was to explain attitudes justifying IPVAW identifying individual and societal risk factors. DESIGN AND SETTING A multilevel cross-sectional study of the World Values Survey (WVS) in 54 global countries. PARTICIPANTS A representative transnational community-based sample of 81 516 participants (47.8% male, 52.1% female), aged mean of 42.41. MEASURES Attitudes justifying IPVAW, sociodemographic, sexism, self-transcendence and conservation values were measured using questions from WVS. Country and regional gender inequality were assessed by Gender Inequality Index. RESULTS Around 16% (intraclass correlation=0.16) of individual differences in attitudes justifying IPVAW are explained by countries. Statistically significant predictors at individual and country level were: sex (B=-0.24, 95% CI -0.27 to -0.22), age (B=-0.08 to -0.25, 95% CI -0.34 to -0.03), marital status (B=0.09 to 0.23, 95% CI 0.002 to 0.33), educational level (B=-0.10 to -0.14, 95% CI -0.20 to -0.04), self-transcendence values (B=-0.10, 95% CI -0.20 to -0.12), sexism (B=0.21, 95% CI 0.15 to 0.28), country (B=2.18, 95% CI 1.09 to 3.26) and regional (B=2.23, 95% CI 1.04 to 3.42) gender inequality. Country gender inequality (B=-0.18, p=0.12) and regional gender inequality (B=-0.21, p=0.10) did not moderate the associations between self-transcendence values and attitudes justifying IPVAW. In the same way for sexism, data did not provide support for a moderating role of country gender inequality (B=0.22, p=0.26) and regional gender inequality (B=0.10, p=0.66). CONCLUSIONS Individual and country predictors accounted for differences in attitudes justifying IPVAW. However, neither gender inequality of country nor gender inequality of region interacted with sexism and self-transcendence values. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Celia Serrano-Montilla
- Methodology for Behavioral Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- The Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center at University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Luis M Lozano
- Methodology for Behavioral Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- The Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center at University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Michael Bender
- Social Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
- Psychology, Gratia Christian College, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Jose-Luis Padilla
- Methodology for Behavioral Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- The Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center at University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Measurement of supportive attitudes towards intimate partner violence against women among a Spanish-speaker sample. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0241392. [PMID: 33141842 PMCID: PMC7608927 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0241392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Intimate partner violence is the most common type of violence against women. Attitudes towards this violence are increasingly recognized as key to understanding this social and public health problem because a social environment that accepts or even supports it creates a climate that breeds further violence and encourages their perpetration. The evidence available shows that these attitudes are influenced by different individual, organizational and community factors, and that the supportive attitudes are generally more common among males, and among older and less educated people. This paper presents two cross-sectional studies which aim to obtain a deeper understanding of supportive attitudes towards intimate partner violence against women in a Spanish-speakers context. Results obtained show that the two questionnaires used may be useful for evaluating supporting attitudes towards this violence in Spanish-speaking samples. Thus, the Inventory of Distorted Thoughts about Women and Violence (IPDMV), one of the one of the most widely used tools to this aim among Spanish-speakers, includes information regarding the minimization of this violence and the responsibility of perpetrators, and it seems better able to capture the effect of previous training, which would be consistent with the fact that it was initially designed to detect the effects of interventions; and the Inventory of Beliefs about Intimate Partner Violence (IBIPV), a new tool recently designed to this aim, is more focused on supportive attitudes and seems more effective for capturing differences between men and women in blaming victims and exonerating perpetrators. Additionally, the results obtained allow us to complement previous studies on the effects that factors such as gender, age, or previous training have on supportive attitudes towards intimate partner violence against women.
Collapse
|
8
|
Sánchez-Prada A, Delgado-Alvarez C, Bosch-Fiol E, Ferreiro-Basurto V, Ferrer-Perez VA. Psychosocial Implications of Supportive Attitudes towards Intimate Partner Violence against Women throughout the Lifecycle. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E6055. [PMID: 32825340 PMCID: PMC7504667 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17176055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 08/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Supportive attitudes towards intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) normalize and promote these aggressive behaviors. As a result, more and more research is proposing the identification, analysis and intervention of these attitudes. However, the vast majority of this research focuses on students. The main objective of this paper is to analyze these supportive attitudes throughout the lifecycle. An opportunity sample of 200 Spanish participants, by age and sex fixed quotas, took part in this study. Attitudes were measured using the Inventory of Distorted Thoughts about Women and Violence, the Inventory of Beliefs about Intimate Partner Violence and the Gender Violence Implicit Association Test, a personalized form of Implicit Association Test (IAT). The results show that explicitly measured supportive attitudes towards intimate partner violence against women differ between age groups, adopting a U-shape distribution: lower acceptance among middle-aged-adults and young-adults and higher acceptance among adolescents and older adults. However, when these attitudes were implicitly measured, the IPVAW rejection increased with age, which is a counter-intuitive result and inconsistent with previous theoretical evidence. In summary, these results support an age effect that differs according to the measure of attitudes used and highlight some difficulties related to based-on-reaction-time measures among older people. This suggests the need for further research on the topic, especially among the older population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Sánchez-Prada
- Faculty of Psychology, Pontifical University of Salamanca, 37002 Salamanca, Spain; (A.S.-P.); (C.D.-A.)
| | - Carmen Delgado-Alvarez
- Faculty of Psychology, Pontifical University of Salamanca, 37002 Salamanca, Spain; (A.S.-P.); (C.D.-A.)
| | - Esperanza Bosch-Fiol
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Balearic Islands, 07122 Palma, Spain; (E.B.-F.); (V.F.-B.)
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Karlsson N, Lila M, Gracia E, Wemrell M. Representation of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Swedish News Media: A Discourse Analysis. Violence Against Women 2020; 27:1499-1524. [PMID: 32713268 PMCID: PMC8239991 DOI: 10.1177/1077801220940403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Despite being rated as some of the world's most gender equal countries, Sweden and neighboring Nordic nations show high rates of intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW). As the news media contribute to the shaping of public attitudes, this article pursues a two-step discourse analysis of how IPVAW was represented in seven Swedish newspapers during 2018. Although an individualistic discourse on IPVAW was found to be most prevalent, articles where perpetrators were presented as non-Swedish more frequently contained a structural framing of IPVAW. This confirms previously noted tendencies toward individualization and othering of IPVAW in Sweden.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nadja Karlsson
- Lund University, Malmö, Sweden.,Unit for Social Epidemiology, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | | | | | - Maria Wemrell
- Lund University, Malmö, Sweden.,Department of Gender Studies, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Gracia E, Lila M, Santirso FA. Attitudes Toward Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in the European Union: A Systematic Review. EUROPEAN PSYCHOLOGIST 2020. [DOI: 10.1027/1016-9040/a000392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract. Attitudes toward intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) are increasingly recognized as central to understanding of this major social and public health problem, and guide the development of more effective prevention efforts. However, to date this area of research is underdeveloped in western societies, and in particular in the EU. The present study aims to provide a systematic review of quantitative studies addressing attitudes toward IPVAW conducted in the EU. The review was conducted through Web of Science, PsychINFO, Medline, EMBASE, PUBMED, and the Cochrane Library, in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) recommendations. This review aimed to identify empirical studies conducted in the EU, published in English in peer-reviewed journals from 2000 to 2018, and analyzing attitudes toward IPVAW. A total of 62 of 176 eligible articles were selected according to inclusion criteria. Four sets of attitudes toward IPVAW were identified as the main focus of the studies: legitimation, acceptability, attitudes toward intervention, and perceived severity. Four main research themes regarding attitudes toward IPVAW emerged: correlates of attitudes, attitudes as predictors, validation of scales, and attitude change interventions. Although interest in this research area has been growing in recent years, the systematic review revealed important gaps in current knowledge on attitudes toward IPVAW in the EU that limits its potential to inform public policy. The review outlines directions for future study and suggests that to better inform policy making, these future research efforts would benefit from an EU-level perspective.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Enrique Gracia
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Valencia, Spain
| | - Marisol Lila
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Valencia, Spain
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Gracia E, Martín-Fernández M, Lila M, Merlo J, Ivert AK. Prevalence of intimate partner violence against women in Sweden and Spain: A psychometric study of the 'Nordic paradox'. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0217015. [PMID: 31095614 PMCID: PMC6522122 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0217015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The high prevalence of intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) in countries with high levels of gender equality has been defined as the "Nordic paradox". In this study we compared physical and sexual IPVAW prevalence data in two countries exemplifying the Nordic paradox: Sweden (N = 1483) and Spain (N = 1447). Data was drawn from the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights Survey on violence against women. To ascertain whether differences between these two countries reflect true differences in IPVAW prevalence, and to rule out the possibility of measurement bias, we conducted a set of analyses to ensure measurement equivalence, a precondition for appropriate and valid cross-cultural comparisons. Results showed that in both countries items were measuring two separate constructs, physical and sexual IPVAW, and that these factors had high internal consistency and adequate validity. Measurement equivalence analyses (i.e., differential item functioning, and multigroup confirmatory factor analysis) supported the comparability of data across countries. Latent means comparisons between the Spanish and the Swedish samples showed that scores on both the physical and sexual IPVAW factors were significantly higher in Sweden than in Spain. The effect sizes of these differences were large: 89.1% of the Swedish sample had higher values in the physical IPVAW factor than the Spanish average, and this percentage was 99.4% for the sexual IPVAW factor as compared to the Spanish average. In terms of probability of superiority, there was an 80.7% and 96.1% probability that a Swedish woman would score higher than a Spanish woman in the physical and the sexual IPVAW factors, respectively. Our results showed that the higher prevalence of physical and sexual IPVAW in Sweden than in Spain reflects actual differences and are not the result of measurement bias, supporting the idea of the Nordic paradox.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Enrique Gracia
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | | | - Marisol Lila
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Juan Merlo
- Unit for Social Epidemiology, University of Lund, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Anna-Karin Ivert
- Unit for Social Epidemiology, University of Lund, Malmö, Sweden
- Department of Criminology, Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Gracia E, Martín-Fernández M, Marco M, Santirso FA, Vargas V, Lila M. The Willingness to Intervene in Cases of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women (WI-IPVAW) Scale: Development and Validation of the Long and Short Versions. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1146. [PMID: 30065678 PMCID: PMC6056762 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Willingness to intervene when one becomes aware of a case of intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) reflects the level of tolerance and acceptance of this type of violence in society. Increasing the likelihood of intervention to help victims of IPVAW is also a target for prevention strategies aiming to increase informal social control of IPVAW. In this study, we present the development and validation of the Willingness to Intervene in Cases of Intimate Partner Violence (WI-IPVAW) scale. We report data for both the long and short versions of the scale. We analyzed the latent structure, the reliability and validity of the WI-IPVAW across four samples (N = 1648). Factor analyses supported a bifactor model with a general non-specific factor expressing willingness to intervene in cases of IPVAW, and three specific factors reflecting different intervention preferences: a preference for setting the law enforcement process in motion ("calling the cops" factor), a preference for personal intervention ("personal involvement" factor), and a preference for non-intervention ("not my business" factor). Configural, metric, and partial scalar invariance across genders were supported. Two short versions of the scale, with nine and six items, respectively, were constructed on the base of quantitative and qualitative criteria. The long and short versions of the WI-IPVAW demonstrated both high reliability and construct validity, as they were strongly related to the acceptability of IPVAW, victim-blaming attitudes, perceived severity of IPVAW, and hostile sexism. These results confirm that both the long and short versions of the WI-IPVAW scale are psychometrically sound instruments to analyze willingness to intervene in cases of IPVAW in different settings and with different research needs (e.g., long versions for clinical and research settings, and short versions for large population surveys). The WI-IPVAW is also useful for assessing prevention policies and public education campaigns design to promote a more responsive social environment in cases of IPVAW, thus contributing to deter and reduce this major social and public health problem.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Enrique Gracia
- Department of Social Psychology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|