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DeCandia AL, Adeduro L, Thacher P, Crosier A, Marinari P, Bortner R, Garelle D, Livieri T, Santymire R, Comizzoli P, Maslanka M, Maldonado JE, Koepfli KP, Muletz-Wolz C, Bornbusch SL. Gut bacterial composition shows sex-specific shifts during breeding season in ex situ managed black-footed ferrets. J Hered 2024; 115:385-398. [PMID: 37886904 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esad065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiome of mammals engages in a dynamic relationship with the body and contributes to numerous physiological processes integral to overall health. Understanding the factors shaping animal-associated bacterial communities is therefore paramount to the maintenance and management in ex situ wildlife populations. Here, we characterized the gut microbiome of 48 endangered black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) housed at Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute (Front Royal, Virginia, USA). We collected longitudinal fecal samples from males and females across two distinct reproductive seasons to consider the role of host sex and reproductive physiology in shaping bacterial communities, as measured using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Within each sex, gut microbial composition differed between breeding and non-breeding seasons, with five bacterial taxa emerging as differentially abundant. Between sexes, female and male microbiomes were similar during non-breeding season but significantly different during breeding season, which may result from sex-specific physiological changes associated with breeding. Finally, we found low overall diversity consistent with other mammalian carnivores alongside high relative abundances of potentially pathogenic microbes such as Clostridium, Escherichia, Paeniclostridium, and (to a lesser degree) Enterococcus-all of which have been associated with gastrointestinal or reproductive distress in mammalian hosts, including black-footed ferrets. We recommend further study of these microbes and possible therapeutic interventions to promote more balanced microbial communities. These results have important implications for ex situ management practices that can improve the gut microbial health and long-term viability of black-footed ferrets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra L DeCandia
- Biology Department, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Laura Adeduro
- Biology Department, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Piper Thacher
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, United States
- Smithsonian-Mason School of Conservation, George Mason University, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Adrienne Crosier
- Center for Animal Care Sciences, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Paul Marinari
- Center for Animal Care Sciences, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Robyn Bortner
- National Black-Footed Ferret Conservation Center, Carr, CO, United States
| | - Della Garelle
- National Black-Footed Ferret Conservation Center, Carr, CO, United States
| | - Travis Livieri
- Prairie Wildlife Research, Stevens Point, WI, United States
| | - Rachel Santymire
- Biology Department, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Pierre Comizzoli
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Michael Maslanka
- Department of Nutrition Science, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Jesús E Maldonado
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Klaus-Peter Koepfli
- Smithsonian-Mason School of Conservation, George Mason University, Front Royal, VA, United States
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Carly Muletz-Wolz
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Sally L Bornbusch
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, United States
- Department of Nutrition Science, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, United States
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Bornbusch SL, Bamford A, Thacher P, Crosier A, Marinari P, Bortner R, Garelle D, Livieri T, Santymire R, Comizzoli P, Maslanka M, Maldonado JE, Koepfli KP, Muletz-Wolz CR, DeCandia AL. Markers of fertility in reproductive microbiomes of male and female endangered black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes). Commun Biol 2024; 7:224. [PMID: 38396133 PMCID: PMC10891159 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-05908-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Reproductive microbiomes contribute to reproductive health and success in humans. Yet data on reproductive microbiomes, and links to fertility, are absent for most animal species. Characterizing these links is pertinent to endangered species, such as black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes), whose populations show reproductive dysfunction and rely on ex-situ conservation husbandry. To understand microbial contributions to animal reproductive success, we used 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing to characterize male (prepuce) and female (vaginal) microbiomes of 59 black-footed ferrets at two ex-situ facilities and in the wild. We analyzed variation in microbiome structure according to markers of fertility such as numbers of viable and non-viable offspring (females) and sperm concentration (males). Ferret vaginal microbiomes showed lower inter-individual variation compared to prepuce microbiomes. In both sexes, wild ferrets harbored potential soil bacteria, perhaps reflecting their fossorial behavior and exposure to natural soil microbiomes. Vaginal microbiomes of ex-situ females that produced non-viable litters had greater phylogenetic diversity and distinct composition compared to other females. In males, sperm concentration correlated with varying abundances of bacterial taxa (e.g., Lactobacillus), mirroring results in humans and highlighting intriguing dynamics. Characterizing reproductive microbiomes across host species is foundational for understanding microbial biomarkers of reproductive success and for augmenting conservation husbandry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally L Bornbusch
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA.
- Department of Nutrition Science, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA.
| | | | - Piper Thacher
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA
- Smithsonian-Mason School of Conservation, George Mason University, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Adrienne Crosier
- Center for Animal Care Services, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Paul Marinari
- Center for Animal Care Services, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Robyn Bortner
- National Black-Footed Ferret Conservation Center, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Carr, CO, USA
| | - Della Garelle
- National Black-Footed Ferret Conservation Center, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Carr, CO, USA
| | | | | | - Pierre Comizzoli
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Michael Maslanka
- Department of Nutrition Science, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Jesús E Maldonado
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Klaus-Peter Koepfli
- Smithsonian-Mason School of Conservation, George Mason University, Front Royal, VA, USA
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Carly R Muletz-Wolz
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Alexandra L DeCandia
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
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3
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Rojas CA, Marks SL, Borras E, Lesea H, McCartney MM, Coil DA, Davis CE, Eisen JA. Characterization of the microbiome and volatile compounds in anal gland secretions from domestic cats (Felis catus) using metagenomics and metabolomics. Sci Rep 2023; 13:19382. [PMID: 37938241 PMCID: PMC10632438 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-45997-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Many mammals rely on volatile organic chemical compounds (VOCs) produced by bacteria for their communication and behavior, though little is known about the exact molecular mechanisms or bacterial species that are responsible. We used metagenomic sequencing, mass-spectrometry based metabolomics, and culturing to profile the microbial and volatile chemical constituents of anal gland secretions in twenty-three domestic cats (Felis catus), in attempts to identify organisms potentially involved in host odor production. We found that the anal gland microbiome was dominated by bacteria in the genera Corynebacterium, Bacteroides, Proteus, Lactobacillus, and Streptococcus, and showed striking variation among individual cats. Microbiome profiles also varied with host age and obesity. Metabolites such as fatty-acids, ketones, aldehydes and alcohols were detected in glandular secretions. Overall, microbiome and metabolome profiles were modestly correlated (r = 0.17), indicating that a relationship exists between the bacteria in the gland and the metabolites produced in the gland. Functional analyses revealed the presence of genes predicted to code for enzymes involved in VOC metabolism such as dehydrogenases, reductases, and decarboxylases. From metagenomic data, we generated 85 high-quality metagenome assembled genomes (MAGs). Of importance were four MAGs classified as Corynebacterium frankenforstense, Proteus mirabilis, Lactobacillus johnsonii, and Bacteroides fragilis. They represent strong candidates for further investigation of the mechanisms of volatile synthesis and scent production in the mammalian anal gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connie A Rojas
- Genome Center, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
| | - Stanley L Marks
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, University of California-Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Eva Borras
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
- UC Davis Lung Center, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Hira Lesea
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Mitchell M McCartney
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
- UC Davis Lung Center, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
- VA Northern California Health Care System, Mather, CA, USA
| | - David A Coil
- Genome Center, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Cristina E Davis
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
- UC Davis Lung Center, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
- VA Northern California Health Care System, Mather, CA, USA
| | - Jonathan A Eisen
- Genome Center, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
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Rojas CA, Marks SL, Borras E, Lesea H, McCartney MM, Coil D, Davis CE, Eisen JA. Characterization of the microbiome and volatile compounds in anal gland secretions from domestic cats (Felis catus) using metagenomics and metabolomics. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-2883555. [PMID: 37214811 PMCID: PMC10197813 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-2883555/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Animals rely on volatile chemical compounds for their communication and behavior. Many of these compounds are sequestered in endocrine and exocrine glands and are synthesized by anaerobic microbes. While the volatile organic compound (VOC) or microbiome composition of glandular secretions has been investigated in several mammalian species, few have linked specific bacterial taxa to the production of volatiles or to specific microbial gene pathways. Here, we use metagenomic sequencing, mass-spectrometry based metabolomics, and culturing to profile the microbial and volatile chemical constituents of anal gland secretions in twenty-three domestic cats (Felis catus), in attempts to identify organisms potentially involved in host odor production. We found that the anal gland microbiome was dominated by bacteria in the genera Corynebacterium, Bacteroides, Proteus, Lactobacillus, and Streptococcus, and showed striking variation among individual cats. Microbiome profiles also varied with host age and obesity. Metabolites such as fatty-acids, ketones, aldehydes and alcohols were detected in glandular secretions. Overall, microbiome and metabolome profiles were modestly correlated (r=0.17), indicating that a relationship exists between the bacteria in the gland and the metabolites produced in the gland. Functional analyses revealed the presence of genes predicted to code for enzymes involved in VOC metabolism such as dehydrogenases, reductases, and decarboxylases. From metagenomic data, we generated 85 high-quality metagenome assembled genomes (MAGs). Of these, four were inferred to have high relative abundance in metagenome profiles and had close relatives that were recovered as cultured isolates. These four MAGs were classified as Corynebacterium frankenforstense, Proteus mirabilis, Lactobacillus johnsonii, and Bacteroides fragilis. They represent strong candidates for further investigation of the mechanisms of volatile synthesis and scent production in the mammalian anal gland.
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5
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Microbial rewilding in the gut microbiomes of captive ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) in Madagascar. Sci Rep 2022; 12:22388. [PMID: 36575246 PMCID: PMC9794702 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-26861-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial rewilding, whereby exposure to naturalistic environments can modulate or augment gut microbiomes and improve host-microbe symbiosis, is being harnessed as an innovative approach to human health, one that may also have significant value to animal care and conservation. To test for microbial rewilding in animal microbiomes, we used a unique population of wild-born ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) that were initially held as illegal pets in unnatural settings and, subsequently, relocated to a rescue center in Madagascar where they live in naturalistic environments. Using amplicon and shotgun metagenomic sequencing of lemur and environmental microbiomes, we found multiple lines of evidence for microbial rewilding in lemurs that were transitioned from unnatural to naturalistic environments: A lemur's duration of exposure to naturalistic settings significantly correlated with (a) increased compositional similarly to the gut communities of wild lemurs, (b) decreased proportions of antibiotic resistance genes that were likely acquired via human contact during pethood, and (c) greater covariation with soil microbiomes from natural habitats. Beyond the inherent psychosocial value of naturalistic environments, we find that actions, such as providing appropriate diets, minimizing contact with humans, and increasing exposure to natural environmental consortia, may assist in maximizing host-microbe symbiosis in animals under human care.
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Greene LK, Andriambeloson JB, Blanco MB, Ehmke EE. Forest access restores foraging and ranging behavior in captive sifakas. Zoo Biol 2022; 42:209-222. [PMID: 36251585 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Captive wildlife benefit from ecologically informed management strategies that promote natural behaviors. The Duke Lemur Center has pioneered husbandry programs rooted in species' ecology for a diversity of lemurs, including housing social groups in multiacre forest enclosures. We systematically document the foraging and ranging patterns of Coquerel's sifakas (Propithecus coquereli) living in these forest enclosures. Coquerel's sifakas are seasonal frugo-folivores that exhibit striking feeding flexibility in the wild. They are also one of the few members of the Indriidae family to persist in captivity. During all-day follows in the spring and summer of 2 consecutive years, we tracked the behavior of 14 sifakas in six forest enclosures. The sifakas' ranging and foraging patterns reflected those of wild sifakas in western Madagascar: On average, DLC sifakas occupied 3-day home ranges of 1.2 ha, traveled 473 m/day, and spent 26% of their time foraging for wild foodstuffs. The sifakas foraged most for young and mature leaves, fruits, nuts, and flowers from 39 plant species, especially red maple (Acer rubrum), tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), grapevine (Vitis rotundifolia), hickory (Carya spp.), and white oak (Quercus alba). Foraging patterns varied across seasons, enclosure areas, and groups, potentially reflecting differences in phenology, microhabitats, and individual preferences. While demonstrating that captive-bred primates express wild-like behaviors under ecologically relevant conditions, our results underscore the feeding flexibility of the Coquerel's sifaka. Captive wildlife exhibiting the range of species-specific behaviors are key resources for ecological research and might be best suited for future reintroductions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia K Greene
- The Duke Lemur Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | | | - Marina B Blanco
- The Duke Lemur Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Erin E Ehmke
- The Duke Lemur Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
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Bornbusch SL, Keady MM, Power ML, Muletz-Wolz CR. Milk microbiomes of three great ape species vary among host species and over time. Sci Rep 2022; 12:11017. [PMID: 35773288 PMCID: PMC9247006 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-15091-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
In mammalian neonates, milk consumption provides nutrients, growth factors, immune molecules, and microbes. Milk microbiomes are increasingly recognized for their roles in seeding infant gut microbiomes and priming immune development. However, milk microbiome variation within and among individuals remains under investigation. We used 16S rRNA gene sequencing to investigate factors shaping milk microbiomes in three captive great ape species: Gorilla gorilla gorilla (individuals, N = 4; samples, n = 29), Pongo abelii (N = 2; n = 16), and Pongo pygmaeus (N = 1; n = 9). We demonstrate variation among host species, over lactation, and between housing facilities. In phylogenetic community composition, milk microbiomes were distinct among the three ape species. We found only a few shared, abundant bacterial taxa and suggest that they likely serve functional roles. The diversity and community composition of milk microbiomes showed gradual changes over time in gorillas and the Bornean orangutan, which was detectable with our comprehensive sampling over lactation stages (> 300-day span). In gorillas, milk microbiomes differed between housing facilities, but were similar between dams within a facility. These results support the strong influence of evolutionary history in shaping milk microbiomes, but also indicate that more proximate cues from mother, offspring, and the environment affect the distribution of rarer microbial taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally L Bornbusch
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA. .,Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA.
| | - Mia M Keady
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA.,Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Michael L Power
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Carly R Muletz-Wolz
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA
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Bornbusch SL, Greene LK, Rahobilalaina S, Calkins S, Rothman RS, Clarke TA, LaFleur M, Drea CM. Gut microbiota of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) vary across natural and captive populations and correlate with environmental microbiota. Anim Microbiome 2022; 4:29. [PMID: 35484581 PMCID: PMC9052671 DOI: 10.1186/s42523-022-00176-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inter-population variation in host-associated microbiota reflects differences in the hosts' environments, but this characterization is typically based on studies comparing few populations. The diversity of natural habitats and captivity conditions occupied by any given host species has not been captured in these comparisons. Moreover, intraspecific variation in gut microbiota, generally attributed to diet, may also stem from differential acquisition of environmental microbes-an understudied mechanism by which host microbiomes are directly shaped by environmental microbes. To more comprehensively characterize gut microbiota in an ecologically flexible host, the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta; n = 209), while also investigating the role of environmental acquisition, we used 16S rRNA sequencing of lemur gut and soil microbiota sampled from up to 13 settings, eight in the wilderness of Madagascar and five in captivity in Madagascar or the U.S. Based on matched fecal and soil samples, we used microbial source tracking to examine covariation between the two types of consortia. RESULTS The diversity of lemur gut microbes varied markedly within and between settings. Microbial diversity was not consistently greater in wild than in captive lemurs, indicating that this metric is not necessarily an indicator of host habitat or environmental condition. Variation in microbial composition was inconsistent both with a single, representative gut community for wild conspecifics and with a universal 'signal of captivity' that homogenizes the gut consortia of captive animals. Despite the similar, commercial diets of captive lemurs on both continents, lemur gut microbiomes within Madagascar were compositionally most similar, suggesting that non-dietary factors govern some of the variability. In particular, soil microbial communities varied across geographic locations, with the few samples from different continents being the most distinct, and there was significant and context-specific covariation between gut and soil microbiota. CONCLUSIONS As one of the broadest, single-species investigations of primate microbiota, our study highlights that gut consortia are sensitive to multiple scales of environmental differences. This finding begs a reevaluation of the simple 'captive vs. wild' dichotomy. Beyond the important implications for animal care, health, and conservation, our finding that environmental acquisition may mediate aspects of host-associated consortia further expands the framework for how host-associated and environmental microbes interact across different microbial landscapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally L. Bornbusch
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC USA
| | | | | | - Samantha Calkins
- Department of Psychology, Program in Animal Behavior and Conservation, Hunter College, New York, NY USA
| | - Ryan S. Rothman
- Institute for the Conservation of Tropical Environments, Interdepartmental Doctoral Program in Anthropological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY USA
| | - Tara A. Clarke
- Department of Sociology and Anthropology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC USA
| | - Marni LaFleur
- Department of Anthropology, University of San Diego, 5998 Alcala Park, San Diego, CA USA
| | - Christine M. Drea
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC USA
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