Consistency in Verreaux's sifaka home range and core area size despite seasonal variation in resource availability as assessed by Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI)

Primates are adept at dealing with fluctuating availability of resources and display a range of responses to minimize the effects of food scarcity. An important component of primate conservation is to understand how primates adapt their foraging and ranging patterns in response to fluctuating food resources. Animals optimize resource acquisition within the home range through the selection of resource-bearing patches and choose between contrasting foraging strategies (resource-maximizing vs. area-minimizing). Our study aimed to characterize the foraging strategy of a folivorous primate, Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi), by evaluating whether group home range size varied between peak and lean leaf seasons within a seasonally dry tropical forest in Madagascar. We hypothesized that Verreaux's sifaka used the resource maximization strategy to select high-value resource patches so that during periods of resource depression, the home range area did not significantly change in size. We characterized resource availability (i.e., primary productivity) by season at Kirindy Mitea National Park using remotely-sensed Enhanced Vegetation Index data. We calculated group home ranges using 10 years of focal animal sampling data collected on eight groups using both 95% and 50% kernel density estimation. We used area accumulation curves to ensure each group had an adequate number of locations to reach seasonal home range asymptotes. Neither 95% home ranges nor 50% core areas differed across peak and lean leaf resource seasons, supporting the hypothesis that Verreaux's sifaka use a resource maximization strategy. With a better understanding of animal space use strategies, managers can model anticipated changes under environmental and/or anthropogenic resource depression scenarios. These findings demonstrate the value of long-term data for characterizing and understanding foraging and ranging patterns. We also illustrate the benefits of using satellite data for characterizing food resources for folivorous primates.

Interspecies Papillomavirus Type Infection and a Novel Papillomavirus Type in Red Ruffed Lemurs (Varecia rubra)

The Papillomaviridae are a family of vertebrate-infecting viruses of oncogenic potential generally thought to be host species- and tissue-specific. Despite their phylogenetic relatedness to humans, there is a scarcity of data on papillomaviruses (PVs) in speciose non-human primate lineages, particularly the lemuriform primates. Varecia variegata (black-and-white ruffed lemurs) and Varecia rubra (red ruffed lemurs), two closely related species comprising the Varecia genus, are critically endangered with large global captive populations. Varecia variegata papillomavirus (VavPV) types -1 and -2, the first PVs in lemurs with a fully identified genome, were previously characterized from captive V. variegata saliva. To build upon this discovery, saliva samples were collected from captive V. rubra with the following aims: (1) to identify PVs shared between V. variegata and V. rubra and (2) to characterize novel PVs in V. rubra to better understand PV diversity in the lemuriform primates. Three complete PV genomes were determined from V. rubra samples. Two of these PV genomes share 98% L1 nucleotide identity with VavPV2, denoting interspecies infection of V. rubra by VavPV2. This work represents the first reported case of interspecies PV infection amongst the strepsirrhine primates. The third PV genome shares <68% L1 nucleotide identity with that of all PVs. Thus, it represents a new PV species and has been named Varecia rubra papillomavirus 1 (VarPV1). VavPV1, VavPV2, and VarPV1 form a new clade within the Papillomaviridae family, likely representing a novel genus. Future work diversifying sample collection (i.e., lemur host species from multiple genera, sample type, geographic location, and wild populations) is likely to uncover a world of diverse lemur PVs.

Physiological and genomic characterization of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum isolated from Indri indri in Madagascar

AIMS

Indri indri is a lemur of Madagascar which is critically endangered. The analysis of the microbial ecology of the intestine offers tools to improve conservation efforts. This study aimed to achieve a functional genomic analysis of three Lactiplantibacillus plantarum isolates from indris.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Samples were obtained from 18 indri; 3 isolates of Lp. plantarum were obtained from two individuals. The three isolates were closely related to each other, with <10 single nucleotide polymorphisms, suggesting that the two individuals shared diet-associated microbes. The genomes of the three isolates were compared to 96 reference strains of Lp. plantarum. The three isolates of Lp. plantarum were not phenotypically resistant to antibiotics but shared all 17 genes related to antimicrobial resistance that are part of the core genome of Lp. plantarum. The genomes of the three indri isolates of Lp. plantarum also encoded for the 6 core genome genes coding for enzymes related to metabolism of hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids. The phenotype for metabolism of hydroxycinnamic acids by indri isolates of Lp. plantarum matched the genotype.

CONCLUSIONS

Multiple antimicrobial resistance genes and gene coding for metabolism of phenolic compounds were identified in the genomes of the indri isolates, suggesting that Lp. plantarum maintains antimicrobial resistance in defense of antimicrobial plant secondary pathogens and that their metabolism by intestinal bacteria aids digestion of plant material by primate hosts.

A Nuanced Examination of Primate Capture and Consumption and Human Socio-Economic Well-Being in Kirindy Mitea National Park, Madagascar

The futures of human and nonhuman primates are closely tied in protected areas. Understanding this interconnectedness is especially urgent in Madagascar, one of the world's most impoverished biodiversity hotspots. Yet, no study has evaluated the relationship between poverty and lemur hunting and consumption using a composite poverty metric that includes health, education, and living standards. To address this gap, and to inform primate conservation practice and policy, we administered annual surveys to 81 households over six consecutive months (September 2018 to March 2019) in a village on the border of Kirindy Mitea National Park, Madagascar. We observed extreme deprivation scores across multiple dimensions of poverty and identified ninety-five percent of households as 'impoverished'. Of these, three-quarters (77%) of households were identified as being in 'severe poverty'. One-fifth (19%) of all households hunted lemurs and half (49%) of households consumed lemurs. While poverty eradication is an urgent need in communities around Kirindy Mitea National Park, our findings show no relationship between poverty and lemur hunting and consumption, perhaps due to the lack of variance in poverty. Our results highlight the need to investigate other contributory factors to lemur hunting and consumption locally. Because food insecurity is a known driver of lemur hunting and consumption among the study community, and because domestic meats can be preferred over protected species, we recommend testing the efficacy of livestock interventions near Kirindy Mitea National Park.

Forest access restores foraging and ranging behavior in captive sifakas

Captive wildlife benefit from ecologically informed management strategies that promote natural behaviors. The Duke Lemur Center has pioneered husbandry programs rooted in species' ecology for a diversity of lemurs, including housing social groups in multiacre forest enclosures. We systematically document the foraging and ranging patterns of Coquerel's sifakas (Propithecus coquereli) living in these forest enclosures. Coquerel's sifakas are seasonal frugo-folivores that exhibit striking feeding flexibility in the wild. They are also one of the few members of the Indriidae family to persist in captivity. During all-day follows in the spring and summer of 2 consecutive years, we tracked the behavior of 14 sifakas in six forest enclosures. The sifakas' ranging and foraging patterns reflected those of wild sifakas in western Madagascar: On average, DLC sifakas occupied 3-day home ranges of 1.2 ha, traveled 473 m/day, and spent 26% of their time foraging for wild foodstuffs. The sifakas foraged most for young and mature leaves, fruits, nuts, and flowers from 39 plant species, especially red maple (Acer rubrum), tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), grapevine (Vitis rotundifolia), hickory (Carya spp.), and white oak (Quercus alba). Foraging patterns varied across seasons, enclosure areas, and groups, potentially reflecting differences in phenology, microhabitats, and individual preferences. While demonstrating that captive-bred primates express wild-like behaviors under ecologically relevant conditions, our results underscore the feeding flexibility of the Coquerel's sifaka. Captive wildlife exhibiting the range of species-specific behaviors are key resources for ecological research and might be best suited for future reintroductions.

Hepatocellular carcinomas in captive prosimians

We performed a retrospective examination of spontaneous hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs) (primary and metastatic tumors) in 14 captive prosimians brought to the Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory in North Carolina State University over a period of 11 years (2003 to 2014) to characterize the tumors. These animals are endangered primates; a better understanding of the main fatal neoplasms is crucial. In addition to the histologic evaluation, an immunohistochemical study was also performed, using a hepatocyte marker (hepatocyte paraffin 1 [HepPar-1]) and 2 cholangiocyte markers (keratin 7 [K7] and keratin 19 [K19]), in an attempt to identify a specific profile for HCCs with metastatic behavior. Six of the 14 HCCs had pulmonary metastases. The most frequent histopathological findings were a trabecular pattern (14/14, 100%), presence of multinucleated cells (12/14, 85.7%), and foci of extramedullary hematopoiesis (9/14, 64.3%). The mitotic count was significantly higher in the metastatic HCCs (P < .05). HepPar-1 was detected in all primary and metastatic HCCs, with a strong intensity of staining. Labeling for K7 and K19 was positive in 12 HCCs (85.7%) and 1 HCC (7.1%), respectively. Contrary to the less aggressive HCCs, most of the metastatic HCCs (5/6) expressed K7 in more than 15% of cells. The percentage of K7-positive neoplastic hepatocytes was significantly higher in metastatic HCCs. This study suggests that K7 might be a prognostically relevant marker in HCCs of captive prosimians.

Variation in gut microbiome structure across the annual hibernation cycle in a wild primate

The gut microbiome can mediate host metabolism, including facilitating energy-saving strategies like hibernation. The dwarf lemurs of Madagascar (Cheirogaleus spp.) are the only obligate hibernators among primates. They also hibernate in the subtropics, and unlike temperate hibernators, fatten by converting fruit sugars to lipid deposits, torpor at relatively warm temperatures, and forage for a generalized diet after emergence. Despite these ecological differences, we might expect hibernation to shape the gut microbiome in similar ways across mammals. We, therefore, compare gut microbiome profiles, determined by amplicon sequencing of rectal swabs, in wild furry-eared dwarf lemurs (C. crossleyi) during fattening, hibernation, and after emergence. The dwarf lemurs exhibited reduced gut microbial diversity during fattening, intermediate diversity and increased community homogenization during hibernation, and greatest diversity after emergence. The Mycoplasma genus was enriched during fattening, whereas the Aerococcaceae and Actinomycetaceae families, and not Akkermansia, bloomed during hibernation. As expected, the dwarf lemurs showed seasonal reconfigurations of the gut microbiome; however, the patterns of microbial diversity diverged from temperate hibernators, and better resembled the shifts associated with dietary fruits and sugars in primates and model organisms. Our results thus highlight the potential for dwarf lemurs to probe microbiome-mediated metabolism in primates under contrasting conditions.

Angiostrongylus cantonensis in a Red Ruffed Lemur at a Zoo, Louisiana, USA

A red ruffed lemur (Varecia rubra) from a zoo in Louisiana, USA, was euthanized for worsening paresis. Brain and spinal cord histology identified eosinophilic meningoencephalomyelitis with intralesional adult Angiostrongylus sp. nematodes. PCR and sequencing confirmed A. cantonensis infection, indicating this parasite constitutes an emerging zoonosis in the southeastern United States.

Madagascar Terrestrial Camera Survey Database 2021: A collation of protected forest camera surveys from 2007-2021

Madagascar is a threatened global biodiversity hotspot and conservation priority, yet we lack broadscale surveys to assess biodiversity across space and time. To fill this gap, we collated camera trap surveys, capturing species occurrences within Madagascar into a single standardized database. This dataset includes nine distinct protected areas of Madagascar and encompasses 13 subprojects, 38 camera arrays, 1156 sampling units (independent camera site per survey) within two important biodiversity eco-regions: western dry deciduous forest, and eastern humid rainforest. Camera surveys were conducted from June 2007 to January 2021. The final dataset includes 17 unique families of mammals (Bovidae, Canidae, Cheirogaleidae, Daubentoniidae, Equidae, Eupleridae, Felidae, Hominidae, Indriidae, Lemuridae, Lepilemuridae, Muridae, Nesomyidae, Pteropodidae, Soricidae, Suidae, Tenrecidae)comprising 45 species and 27 unique families of birds (Accipitridae, Acrocephalidae, Alcedinidae, Bernieridae, Brachypteraciidae, Caprimulgidae, Cisticolidae, Columbidae, Coraciidae, Corvidae, Cuculidae, Dicruridae, Mesitornithidae, Monarchidae, Motacillidae, Muscicapidae, Numididae, Phasianidae, Rallidae, Sarothruridae, Strigidae, Sturnidae, Sulidae, Threskiornithidae, Upupidae, Vangidae, Zosteropidae) comprising 58 species. Images were processed and verified by individual project dataset creators and camera operation and species tables were then collated. The final product represents the first broad-scale freely available standardized formal faunal database for Madagascar. Data are available through this publication and at DOI:10.5281/zenodo.5801806. These data will be useful for examining species- and community- level trends in occurrence across space or time within Madagascar and globally, evaluating native and invasive species dynamics, and aid in determining species conservation status and planning for at-risk species. There are no copyright restrictions; please cite this paper when using the data for publication.

Social groups constrain the spatiotemporal dynamics of wild sifaka gut microbiomes

Primates acquire gut microbiota from conspecifics through direct social contact and shared environmental exposures. Host behaviour is a prominent force in structuring gut microbial communities, yet the extent to which group or individual-level forces shape the long-term dynamics of gut microbiota is poorly understood. We investigated the effects of three aspects of host sociality (social groupings, dyadic interactions, and individual dispersal between groups) on gut microbiome composition and plasticity in 58 wild Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) from six social groups. Over the course of three dry seasons in a 5-year period, the six social groups maintained distinct gut microbial signatures, with the taxonomic composition of individual communities changing in tandem among coresiding group members. Samples collected from group members during each season were more similar than samples collected from single individuals across different years. In addition, new immigrants and individuals with less stable social ties exhibited elevated rates of microbiome turnover across seasons. Our results suggest that permanent social groupings shape the changing composition of commensal and mutualistic gut microbial communities and thus may be important drivers of health and resilience in wild primate populations.

Fatal Hymenolepis nana cestodiasis in a ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta)

The cestode Hymenolepis nana is a common parasite of humans and mice. Fecal shedding in the absence of clinical disease has previously been reported in ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta). This report describes fatal, disseminated H. nana cestodiasis infection in an aged ring-tailed lemur in a zoological collection. The parasites were associated with severe multifocal to coalescing and regionally extensive pyogranulomatous hepatitis and moderate multifocal pneumonia. The morphology of the parasites was highly unusual. Profiles were variably sized, ellipsoid to irregularly serpiginous, lined by a thin tegument, and filled with lightly eosinophilic fibrillar stroma and numerous, round basophilic cells. Polymerase chain reaction targeting a portion of the 18S rRNA gene and DNA sequencing of the amplicon showed 100% homology with H. nana.

Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Pet Ring-Tailed Lemur, Madagascar

We diagnosed tuberculosis in an illegally wild-captured pet ring-tailed lemur manifesting lethargy, anorexia, and cervical lymphadenopathy. Whole-genome sequencing confirmed the Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolate belonged to lineage 3 and harbored streptomycin resistance. We recommend reverse zoonosis prevention and determination of whether lemurs are able to maintain M. tuberculosis infection.

Environmental drivers of Cheirogaleidae population density: Remarkable resilience of Madagascar's smallest lemurs to habitat degradation

AIM

Global animal populations are in decline due to destruction and degradation of their natural habitat. Understanding the factors that determine the distribution and density of threatened animal populations is therefore now a crucial component of their study and conservation. The Cheirogaleidae are a diverse family of small-bodied, nocturnal lemurs that are widespread throughout the forests of Madagascar. However, many cheirogaleid lemurs are now highly threatened with extinction and the environmental factors that determine their distribution and population density are still little known. Here, I investigated the environmental drivers of Cheirogaleidae population density at genus level.

LOCATION

Various forest sites across Madagascar.

METHODS

I investigated how six environmental variables affect Cheirogaleidae population density at the genus level via random-effect meta-analyses. I then used a generalized linear mixed-effects model to identify the primary predictors of Cheirogaleidae population density. Finally, I investigated how the population density of this family of lemurs varies between protected and unprotected areas of Madagascar via a GLM analysis.

RESULTS

My results indicate that the relationships between the tested environmental factors and population density are genus-specific among the Cheirogaleidae. Rather remarkably, the density of Microcebus appears to have a profoundly positive relationship with anthropogenic disturbance and a negative relationship with forest cover, a finding that is also reflected by larger population densities within unprotected areas in comparison with localities within Madagascar's protected area network.

MAIN CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study are highly encouraging for the conservation of the Cheirogaleidae and highlight the remarkable resilience of these lemurs to habitat degradation and anthropogenic activity. However, this study also outlines the dearth of knowledge that we have for many species, and why these data are urgently needed to understand the biogeography and ecology of threatened animal populations and implement successful conservation.

Lowered sensitivity of bitter taste receptors to β-glucosides in bamboo lemurs: an instance of parallel and adaptive functional decline in TAS2R16?

Bitter taste facilitates the detection of potentially harmful substances and is perceived via bitter taste receptors (TAS2Rs) expressed on the tongue and oral cavity in vertebrates. In primates, TAS2R16 specifically recognizes β-glucosides, which are important in cyanogenic plants' use of cyanide as a feeding deterrent. In this study, we performed cell-based functional assays for investigating the sensitivity of TAS2R16 to β-glucosides in three species of bamboo lemurs (Prolemur simus, Hapalemur aureus and H. griseus), which primarily consume high-cyanide bamboo. TAS2R16 receptors from bamboo lemurs had lower sensitivity to β-glucosides, including cyanogenic glucosides, than that of the closely related ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta). Ancestral reconstructions of TAS2R16 for the bamboo-lemur last common ancestor (LCA) and that of the Hapalemur LCA showed an intermediate sensitivity to β-glucosides between that of the ring-tailed lemurs and bamboo lemurs. Mutagenetic analyses revealed that P. simus and H. griseus had separate species-specific substitutions that led to reduced sensitivity. These results indicate that low sensitivity to β-glucosides at the cellular level—a potentially adaptive trait for feeding on cyanogenic bamboo—evolved independently after the Prolemur–Hapalemur split in each species.

Daily lettuce supplements promote foraging behavior and modify the gut microbiota in captive frugivores

For captive primates, greater provisioning of leafy greens or foliage can promote natural foraging behavior while boosting fiber intake. Recalcitrant fiber, although minimally available to endogenous metabolism, is readily fermented into nutrients by gut microbes. Whereas most primates in captivity consume fiber-limited diets and harbor imbalanced gut microbiota compared to their wild conspecifics, the importance of fiber provisioning to primate gut microbiota has predominately been studied in folivores. We, therefore, determined if commercial lettuce could be used to encourage foraging behavior and modify the gut microbiota of captive frugivores. We provisioned ruffed lemurs (Varecia rubra and V. variegata) with romaine lettuce, on top of the standard dietary fare, for 10 consecutive days. Before and across the period of lettuce supplementation, we collected observational data of animal feeding and fecal samples for microbiome analysis, determined via amplicon sequencing. The ruffed lemurs and their gut microbes responded to lettuce provisioning. In particular, younger animals readily ate lettuce and showed no decline in consumption across study days. When controlling for the effects of host species and social-group membership, lettuce consumption shifted the composition of the gut microbiome away from each lemur's own baseline, an effect that became stronger as the study progressed. In the final study days, Ruminococcaceae UCG-008 and Akkermansia, microbes typically and respectively associated with fiber metabolism and host health, were significantly enriched in the consortia of lettuce-provisioned subjects. Ultimately, the routine offering of lettuce, leafy greens, or foliage to captive frugivores may benefit animal wellbeing.

Key Male Glandular Odorants Attracting Female Ring-Tailed Lemurs

Among rodents, information about the external world is mainly acquired via the olfactory system, which is one of five sensory modalities. Several semiochemical signals are used for inter- and intraspecies communication [1]. In contrast, primates are generally regarded as vision-oriented mammals, and have been thought to trade their olfactory sensitivity for good sight. However, strepsirrhines have a well-developed olfactory system [2] and a larger repertoire of functional olfactory and vomeronasal receptor genes than haplorhines [3, 4]. Moreover, strepsirrhines are well known for their use of olfactory communication in social behavior. Ring-tailed lemurs are a species of Malagasy strepsirrhines, and use olfactory cues for conspecific communication. Male lemurs mark their scent by spreading volatiles from the antebrachial gland on their wrists. This study combined ethological and chemical approaches to identify a key odorant(s) in antebrachial secretions involved in the sexual communication of lemurs. The results of a behavioral assay indicated that females sniff the males' antebrachial secretions longer during the breeding season than during the nonbreeding season. By examining seasonal changes in volatiles using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, we found that the secretion of three C12 and C14 aldehydes with a fruity and floral scent significantly increased during the breeding season in a testosterone-dependent manner. Females sniffed for longer at biologically relevant concentrations of two of the aldehydes (12-methyltridecanal and tetradecanal) and were attracted to a mixture of these plus the third aldehyde, dodecanal. Our results suggest that these aldehydes are putative lemur pheromones involved in the attractiveness of males to females during the breeding season.

Selecting and Testing Environmental Enrichment in Lemurs

Environmental enrichment has become a standard tool for improving the welfare of animals in zoos. Two critical steps in the manipulation of environmental enrichment are (1) selection of objects/procedures and (2) evaluation of their effects. In this study, we examined the selection and evaluation of feeding enrichment for four species of lemur. Experiment 1 used a paired-choice preference assessment to divide eight food items into high- and low-preferred categories. Experiment 2 separately assessed the effects of high- versus low-preferred items (placed in bamboo dispensers) on the behavior of two of the species in the preference assessment. Both high- and low-preferred items increased general activity and overall enclosure use, with high-preferred items having a greater effect than low-preferred items on most measures. The results suggest that preference assessments can serve as useful tools in selecting potential enrichment and that enrichment testing is important in evaluating the significance of these preferences.

MORTALITY IN COQUEREL'S SIFAKAS ( PROPITHECUS COQUERELI) UNDER HUMAN CARE: A RETROSPECTIVE SURVEY FROM THE DUKE LEMUR CENTER 1990-2015

  Coquerel's sifakas ( Propithecus coquereli) are diurnal, folivorous lemurs native to Madagascar and one of only two members of the genus Propithecus currently housed in human care settings outside of Madagascar. This species has a lifespan of approximately 30 yr but minimal information exists regarding morbidity and mortality in human care settings. In this retrospective study, medical records, postmortem exam, and autopsy reports from 56 animals housed at the Duke Lemur Center from 1990 to 2015 were evaluated. Mortality assessments included age, sex, time of year, histopathological findings, major organ system impacted, and etiological factors. Mortality was most prevalent among adults greater than 2 yr of age (42.9%) and neonates less than 7 days of age (30.4%). The top four morphological diagnoses accounted for 51.7% of all deaths and included stillbirths (19.6%), enteritis-colitis (12.5%), failure to thrive (10.7%), and systemic protozoal infections (8.9%). The two most commonly affected organ systems in animals over 7 days of age were multisystem disease (30.8%) and the gastrointestinal system (28.2%). Infections were the most common etiology with bacterial being the most prevalent followed by protozoal infections. The results provide insight into common causes of mortality of this species and can be used to guide management of this endangered primate and improve longevity in human care settings.

A natural point mutation in the bitter taste receptor TAS2R16 causes inverse agonism of arbutin in lemur gustation

Bitter taste enables the detection of potentially harmful substances and is mediated by bitter taste receptors, TAS2Rs, in vertebrates. Few antagonists and inverse agonists of TAS2Rs have been identified, especially natural compounds. TAS2R16s in humans, apes and Old World monkeys (Catarrhini, Anthropoidea) recognize β-glucoside analogues as specific agonists. Here, we investigated responses of TAS2R16 to β-glucosides in non-anthropoid primates, namely lemurs (Lemuriformes, Strepsirrhini). Salicin acted as an agonist on lemur TAS2R16. Arbutin acted as an agonist in the ring-tailed lemur ( Lemur catta) but as an inverse agonist in black lemur ( Eulemur macaco) and black-and-white ruffed lemur ( Varecia variegata). We identified a strepsirrhine-specific amino acid substitution responsible for the inverse agonism of arbutin. In a food preference test, salicin bitterness was inhibited by arbutin in the black lemur. Structural modelling revealed this locus was important for a rearrangement of the intracellular end of transmembrane helix 7 (TM7). Accordingly, arbutin is the first known natural inverse agonist of TAS2Rs, contributing to our understanding of receptor-ligand interactions and the molecular basis of the unique feeding habit diversification in lemurs. Furthermore, the identification of a causal point mutation suggests that TAS2R can acquire functional changes according to feeding habits and environmental conditions.

A comparative study of gut microbiomes in captive nocturnal strepsirrhines

Feeding strategy and diet are increasingly recognized for their roles in governing primate gut microbiome (GMB) composition. Whereas feeding strategy reflects evolutionary adaptations to a host's environment, diet is a more proximate measure of food intake. Host phylogeny, which is intertwined with feeding strategy, is an additional, and often confounding factor that shapes GMBs across host lineages. Nocturnal strepsirrhines are an intriguing and underutilized group in which to examine the links between these three factors and GMB composition. Here, we compare GMB composition in four species of captive, nocturnal strepsirrhines with varying feeding strategies and phylogenetic relationships, but nearly identical diets. We use 16S rRNA sequences to determine gut bacterial composition. Despite similar husbandry conditions, including diet, we find that GMB composition varies significantly across host species and is linked to host feeding strategy and phylogeny. The GMBs of the omnivorous and the frugivorous species were significantly more diverse than were those of the insectivorous and exudativorous species. Across all hosts, GMBs were enriched for bacterial taxa associated with the macronutrient resources linked to the host's respective feeding strategy. Ultimately, the reported variation in microbiome composition suggests that the impacts of captivity and concurrent diet do not overshadow patterns of feeding strategy and phylogeny. As our understanding of primate GMBs progresses, populations of captive primates can provide insight into the evolution of host-microbe relationships, as well as inform future captive management protocols that enhance primate health and conservation.

Faecal glucocorticoid metabolite profiles in diademed sifakas increase during seasonal fruit scarcity with interactive effects of age/sex class and habitat degradation

Glucocorticoids are metabolic byproducts of animals' physiological responses to ecological or social challenges and are thought to represent an adaptive response allowing beneficial responses to short-term challenges. Glucocorticoid metabolites (GCs) can be assayed non-invasively through faeces and therefore can be a useful tool to gauge the health of populations experiencing natural and/or anthropogenic stressors. However, the response of GCs to anthropogenic stressors varies, with both higher and lower GC levels reported. Here, we describe variation in GC secretion within eight diademed sifaka (Propithecus diadema) groups across 1 year. These groups span a gradient of anthropogenic habitat disturbance, including groups in continuous forest ('CONT') and disturbed fragments ('FRAG'), and indicators of health suggest that FRAG groups are negatively impacted by habitat disturbance. We monitored phenology, used focal animal follows to quantify diet and collected faeces (n = 547) from which we quantified GC content using enzyme immunoassay. All groups showed elevated lean-season GCs, but with a single, brief peak. GCs were inversely correlated with feeding time. No overall effect of habitat (CONT vs. FRAG) was found, but the lean-season peak was significantly higher in CONT groups. There was a significant season*age-sex interaction; adult females had an attenuated lean-season response compared with groupmates. The observed lean-season 'challenge' is consistent with previous lemur studies, as well as mammals in general. Low and largely invariable GC levels in FRAG, within the context of observed health and nutritional declines, suggest that FRAG groups employ a strategy whereby the adrenal response to stressors is downregulated. More research is needed to contextualize our observations of GC variation and health on an individual level, both in terms of corroborating evidence for ecological and social stressors, and longer-term quantification of reproductive success and fitness.

Systemic Yersinia pseudotuberculosis as a Cause of Osteomyelitis in a Captive Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta)

Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Yersinia enterocolitica are ubiquitous pathogens with wildlife and domestic animal reservoirs. Outbreaks of 'non-plague' yersiniosis in man and non-human primates are reported frequently (including zoological specimens and research breeding colonies) and are usually characterized by enteritis, mesenteric lymphadenitis and occasionally organ abscessation. In people, non-septic reactive arthritis is a common sequela to yersiniosis. However, there have been rare reports in people of septic arthritis and osteomyelitis because of active systemic infection with Y. pseudotuberculosis. Osteomyelitis has also been reported rarely in historical yersiniosis outbreaks in farmed turkeys in England and the USA. This paper reports the first case of osteomyelitis caused by systemic infection with Y. pseudotuberculosis O:1 in a non-human primate, a captive ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta). The lemur had a short clinical history of hyporexia and weight loss with reduction in mobility, especially of the left hindlimb. On post-mortem examination there was evidence of multi-organ abscessation. In addition, severe necrosis, inflammation and large bacterial colonies were present in the musculature, periosteum and bone marrow in the hip, ribs and a vertebra at the cervicothoracic junction. Osteomyelitis should be considered as a rare clinical presentation in non-human primates with systemic Y. pseudotuberculosis infection.

An environmental DNA sampling method for aye-ayes from their feeding traces

Noninvasive sampling is an important development in population genetic monitoring of wild animals. Particularly, the collection of environmental DNA (eDNA) which can be collected without needing to encounter the target animal facilitates the genetic analysis of endangered species. One method that has been applied to these sample types is target capture and enrichment which overcomes the issue of high proportions of exogenous (nonhost) DNA from these lower quality samples. We tested whether target capture of mitochondrial DNA from sampled feeding traces of the aye-aye, an endangered lemur species would yield mitochondrial DNA sequences for population genetic monitoring. We sampled gnawed wood where aye-ayes excavate wood-boring insect larvae from trees. We designed RNA probes complementary to the aye-aye's mitochondrial genome and used these to isolate aye-aye DNA from other nontarget DNA in these samples. We successfully retrieved six near-complete mitochondrial genomes from two sites within the aye-aye's geographic range that had not been sampled previously. Our method demonstrates the application of next-generation molecular techniques to species of conservation concern. This method can likely be applied to alternative foraged remains to sample endangered species other than aye-ayes.

Hierarchical social networks shape gut microbial composition in wild Verreaux's sifaka

In wild primates, social behaviour influences exposure to environmentally acquired and directly transmitted microorganisms. Prior studies indicate that gut microbiota reflect pairwise social interactions among chimpanzee and baboon hosts. Here, we demonstrate that higher-order social network structure-beyond just pairwise interactions-drives gut bacterial composition in wild lemurs, which live in smaller and more cohesive groups than previously studied anthropoid species. Using 16S rRNA gene sequencing and social network analysis of grooming contacts, we estimate the relative impacts of hierarchical (i.e. multilevel) social structure, individual demographic traits, diet, scent-marking, and habitat overlap on bacteria acquisition in a wild population of Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) consisting of seven social groups. We show that social group membership is clearly reflected in the microbiomes of individual sifaka, and that social groups with denser grooming networks have more homogeneous gut microbial compositions. Within social groups, adults, more gregarious individuals, and individuals that scent-mark frequently harbour the greatest microbial diversity. Thus, the community structure of wild lemurs governs symbiotic relationships by constraining transmission between hosts and partitioning environmental exposure to microorganisms. This social cultivation of mutualistic gut flora may be an evolutionary benefit of tight-knit group living.

Feeding strategy shapes gut metagenomic enrichment and functional specialization in captive lemurs

Many studies have demonstrated the effects of host diet on gut microbial membership, metagenomics, and fermentation individually; but few have attempted to interpret the relationship among these biological phenomena with respect to host features (e.g. gut morphology). We quantitatively compare the fecal microbial communities, metabolic pathways, and fermentation products associated with the nutritional intake of frugivorous (fruit-eating) and folivorous (leaf-eating) lemurs. Our results provide a uniquely multidimensional and comparative perspective on the adaptive dynamics between host and microbiome. Shotgun metagenomic sequencing revealed significant differential taxonomic and metabolic pathway enrichment, tailored to digest and detoxify different diets. Frugivorous metagenomes feature pathways to degrade simple carbohydrates and host-derived glycosaminoglycans, while folivorous metagenomes are equipped to break down phytic acid and other phytochemical compounds in an anaerobic environment. We used nuclear magnetic resonance based metabolic profiling of fecal samples to link metabolic pathways to fermentation products, confirming that the dissimilar substrates provided in each diet select for specific microbial functions. Fecal samples from frugivorous lemurs contained significantly different profiles of short chain fatty acids, alcohol fermentation products, amino acids, glucose, and glycerol compared to folivorous lemurs. We present the relationships between these datasets as an integrated visual framework, which we refer to as microbial geometry. We use microbial geometry to compare empirical gut microbial profiles across different feeding strategies, and suggest additional utility as a tool for hypothesis-generation.

AGE-RELATED CHANGES IN HEMATOLOGY AND BLOOD BIOCHEMISTRY VALUES IN ENDANGERED, WILD RING-TAILED LEMURS ( LEMUR CATTA) AT THE BEZÀ MAHAFALY SPECIAL RESERVE, MADAGASCAR

The health of 44 wild ring-tailed lemurs ( Lemur catta) at the Bezà Mahafaly Special Reserve was assessed across three age classes: <5 yr (young), 5-9 yr (adult), and ≥10 yr (old). Hematology and biochemistry tests were performed manually (leukocyte count and differential, packed cell volume, total protein) and using a point-of-care analyzer (hematocrit, hemoglobin, glucose, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, sodium, potassium, chloride, ionized calcium, total carbon dioxide, anion gap), respectively. Urine specific gravity was measured via refractometry. Age- and sex-related differences were detected. Old lemurs had significantly lower lymphocyte count than adult and young lemurs, leading to markedly lower total leukocyte count and higher neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio. Decreased lymphocyte count with advanced age is consistent with immunosenescence. Young lemurs had significantly higher total protein, monocyte count, and potassium than adult and old lemurs but significantly lower ionized calcium than adult lemurs. Males had significantly higher leukocyte, neutrophil, and monocyte counts; lower percentage basophils; and higher blood urea nitrogen than females. Females had markedly higher glucose than males. Young females had the highest monocyte count and total protein, which were significantly lower in the adult and old age classes. Basophil count was stable in females across age but dropped precipitously in males in the adult and old age classes. Within adult and old age classes, males had significantly higher blood urea nitrogen and lower basophils than females. Glucose was significantly higher after α2 agonist administration. Identifying age-related hematologic and biochemical changes in apparently healthy wild ring-tailed lemurs will aid in clinical diagnosis and treatment of lemurs in human care, which is especially relevant for management of geriatric animals in zoo populations. Equally important, a better understanding of the ability of aging lemurs to tolerate environmental stressors will inform the capacity for this species to cope with ongoing and future habitat alteration.

Plasma Amyloid Is Associated with White Matter and Subcortical Alterations and Is Modulated by Age and Seasonal Rhythms in Mouse Lemur Primates

Accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides in the brain is a critical early event in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common age-related neurodegenerative disorder. There is increasing interest in measuring levels of plasma Aβ since this could help in diagnosis of brain pathology. However, the value of plasma Aβ in such a diagnosis is still controversial and factors modulating its levels are still poorly understood. The mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus) is a primate model of cerebral aging which can also present with amyloid plaques and whose Aβ is highly homologous to humans'. In an attempt to characterize this primate model and to evaluate the potential of plasma Aβ as a biomarker for brain alterations, we measured plasma Aβ₄₀ concentration in 21 animals aged from 5 to 9.5 years. We observed an age-related increase in plasma Aβ₄₀ levels. We then evaluated the relationships between plasma Aβ₄₀ levels and cerebral atrophy in these mouse lemurs. Voxel-based analysis of cerebral MR images (adjusted for the age/sex/brain size of the animals), showed that low Aβ₄₀ levels are associated with atrophy of several white matter and subcortical brain regions. These results suggest that low Aβ₄₀ levels in middle-aged/old animals are associated with brain deterioration. One special feature of mouse lemurs is that their metabolic and physiological parameters follow seasonal changes strictly controlled by illumination. We evaluated seasonal-related variations of plasma Aβ₄₀ levels and found a strong effect, with higher plasma Aβ₄₀ concentrations in winter conditions compared to summer. This question of seasonal modulation of Aβ plasma levels should be addressed in clinical studies. We also focused on the amplitude of the difference between plasma Aβ₄₀ levels during the two seasons and found that this amplitude increases with age. Possible mechanisms leading to these seasonal changes are discussed.

Social behaviour and gut microbiota in red-bellied lemurs (Eulemur rubriventer): In search of the role of immunity in the evolution of sociality

Vertebrate gut microbiota form a key component of immunity and a dynamic link between an individual and the ecosystem. Microbiota might play a role in social systems as well, because microbes are transmitted during social contact and can affect host behaviour. Combining methods from behavioural and molecular research, we describe the relationship between social dynamics and gut microbiota of a group-living cooperative species of primate, the red-bellied lemur (Eulemur rubriventer). Specifically, we ask whether patterns of social contact (group membership, group size, position in social network, individual sociality) are associated with patterns of gut microbial composition (diversity and similarity) between individuals and across time. Red-bellied lemurs were found to have gut microbiota with slight temporal fluctuations and strong social group-specific composition. Contrary to expectations, individual sociality was negatively associated with gut microbial diversity. However, position within the social network predicted gut microbial composition. These results emphasize the role of the social environment in determining the microbiota of adult animals. Since social transmission of gut microbiota has the potential to enhance immunity, microbiota might have played an escalating role in the evolution of sociality.

Feeding Ecology and Morphology Make a Bamboo Specialist Vulnerable to Climate Change

Animals with dietary specializations can be used to link climate to specific ecological drivers of endangerment. Only two mammals, the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in Asia and the greater bamboo lemur (Prolemur simus) in Madagascar, consume the nutritionally poor and mechanically challenging culm or trunk of woody bamboos [1-3]. Even though the greater bamboo lemur is critically endangered, paleontological evidence shows that it was once broadly distributed [4, 5]. Here, integrating morphological, paleontological, and ecological evidence, we project the effects of climate change on greater bamboo lemurs. Both the giant panda and the greater bamboo lemur are shown to share diagnostic dental features indicative of a bamboo diet, thereby providing an ecometric indicator [6, 7] of diet preserved in the fossil record. Analyses of bamboo feeding in living populations show that bamboo culm is consumed only during the dry season and that the greater bamboo lemur is currently found in regions with the shortest dry season. In contrast, paleontological localities of the greater bamboo lemurs have the longest dry seasons. Future projections show that many present-day greater bamboo lemur populations will experience prolonged dry seasons similar to those of the localities where only fossils of the greater bamboo lemur are found. Whereas abundant foods such as bamboo allow feeding specialists to thrive, even a moderate change in seasonality may outstrip the capacity of greater bamboo lemurs to persist on their mechanically demanding food source. Coupling known changes in species distribution with high-resolution ecological and historical data helps to identify extinction risks.

Down for the count: Cryptosporidium infection depletes the gut microbiome in Coquerel's sifakas

Background: The gut microbiome (GMB) is the first line of defense against enteric pathogens, which are a leading cause of disease and mortality worldwide. One such pathogen, the protozoan Cryptosporidium, causes a variety of digestive disorders that can be devastating and even lethal. The Coquerel’s sifaka (Propithecus coquereli) – an endangered, folivorous primate endemic to Madagascar – is precariously susceptible to cryptosporidiosis under captive conditions. If left untreated, infection can rapidly advance to morbidity and death.

Objective: To gain a richer understanding of the pathophysiology of this pathogen while also improving captive management of endangered species, we examine the impact of cryptosporidiosis on the GMB of a flagship species known to experience a debilitating disease state upon infection.

Design: Using 16S sequencing of DNA extracted from sifaka fecal samples, we compared the microbial communities of healthy sifakas to those of infected individuals, across infection and recovery periods.

Results: Over the course of infection, we found that the sifaka GMB responds with decreased microbial diversity and increased community dissimilarity. Compared to the GMB of unaffected individuals, as well as during pre-infection and recovery periods, the GMB during active infection was enriched for microbial taxa associated with dysbiosis and rapid transit time. Time to recovery was inversely related to age, with young animals being slowest to recover GMB diversity and full community membership. Antimicrobial treatment during infection caused a significant depletion in GMB diversity.

Conclusions: Although individual sifakas show unique trajectories of microbial loss and recolonization in response to infection, recovering sifakas exhibit remarkably consistent patterns, similar to initial community assembly of the GMB in infants. This observation, in particular, provides biological insight into the rules by which the GMB recovers from the disease state. Fecal transfaunation may prove effective in restoring a healthy GMB in animals with specialized diets.

Use of Primates in Research: What Do We Know About Captive Strepsirrhine Primates?

The increasing debate and restrictions on primate research have prompted many surveys about their status. However, there is a lack of information regarding strepsirrhine primates in the literature. This study provides an overview of research on strepsirrhines in captivity by analyzing scientific articles published from 2010 to 2013 and assessing publicly available government reports in Europe and the United States. Data on taxonomy, country, research area, research class, and type of institution were extracted. The 174 qualifying articles showed that species in the Galagidae and Cheirogaleidae families were used more often in invasive studies of neuroscience and metabolism, while the most commonly used species in noninvasive studies of behavior and cognition were true lemurs (family Lemuridae). France conducted the greatest number of invasive research projects, and the Duke Lemur Center was the institution with the most noninvasive studies. This study investigates how strepsirrhines are used in captive research and identifies issues in need of further review, which suggest that increased participation by the scientific community in the monitoring of strepsirrhine research is warranted.

Hibernation in a primate: does sleep occur?

During hibernation, critical physiological processes are downregulated and thermogenically induced arousals are presumably needed periodically to fulfil those physiological demands. Among the processes incompatible with a hypome tabolic state is sleep. However, one hibernating primate, the dwarf lemur Cheirogaleus medius, experiences rapid eye movement (REM)-like states during hibernation, whenever passively reaching temperatures above 30°C, as occurs when it hibernates in poorly insulated tree hollows under tropical conditions. Here, we report electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings, temperature data and metabolic rates from two related species (C. crossleyi and C. sibreei), inhabiting high-altitude rainforests and hibernating underground, conditions that mirror, to some extent, those experienced by temperate hibernators. We compared the physiology of hibernation and spontaneous arousals in these animals to C. medius, as well as the much more distantly related non-primate hibernators, such as Arctic, golden-mantled and European ground squirrels. We observed a number of commonalities with non-primate temperate hibernators including: (i) monotonous ultra-low voltage EEG during torpor bouts in these relatively cold-weather hibernators, (ii) the absence of sleep during torpor bouts, (iii) the occurrence of spontaneous arousals out of torpor, during which sleep regularly occurred, (iv) relatively high early EEG non-REM during the arousal, and (v) a gradual transition to the torpid EEG state from non-REM sleep. Unlike C. medius, our study species did not display sleep-like states during torpor bouts, but instead exclusively exhibited them during arousals. During these short euthermic periods, non-REM as well as REM sleep-like stages were observed. Differences observed between these two species and their close relative, C. medius, for which data have been published, presumably reflect differences in hibernaculum temperature.

Host age, social group, and habitat type influence the gut microbiota of wild ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta)

The gut microbiota contributes to host health by maintaining homeostasis, increasing digestive efficiency, and facilitating the development of the immune system. The composition of the gut microbiota can change dramatically within and between individuals of a species as a result of diet, age, or habitat. Therefore, understanding the factors determining gut microbiota diversity and composition can contribute to our knowledge of host ecology as well as to conservation efforts. Here we use high-throughput sequencing to describe variation in the gut microbiota of the endangered ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) at the Bezà Mahafaly Special Reserve (BMSR) in southwestern Madagascar. Specifically, we measured the diversity and composition of the gut microbiota in relation to social group, age, sex, tooth wear and loss, and habitat disturbance. While we found no significant variation in the diversity of the ring-tailed lemur gut microbiota in response to any variable tested, the taxonomic composition of the gut microbiota was influenced by social group, age, and habitat disturbance. However, effect sizes were small and appear to be driven by the presence or absence of relatively low abundance taxa. These results suggest that habitat disturbance may not impact the lemur gut microbiota as strongly as it impacts the gut microbiota of other primate species, highlighting the importance of distinct host ecological and physiological factors on host-gut microbe relationships. Am. J. Primatol. 78:883-892, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

A comparison of activity patterns for captive Propithecus tattersalli and Propithecus coquereli

The activity patterns and social interactions of two species of captive sifaka were observed during a 2-year period. Allogrooming was not observed in golden-crowned sifaka and they spent significantly more time resting than the Coquerel's sifaka. Females of both species were found to be dominant to males. The golden-crowned sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli) spent significantly less time feeding than the Coquerel's sifaka. Temperature, time of day, species, and interpair comparisons for the golden-crowned sifaka were found to affect activity and social interactions, while gender did not. Like the Coquerel's sifaka, the golden-crowned sifaka was found to be diurnal; however, they differed in that the golden-crowned sifaka did not descend to the ground.

SUMMER AND WINTER VITAMIN D3 LEVELS IN FOUR LEMUR SPECIES HOUSED AT A BRITISH ZOO, WITH REFERENCE TO UVB LEVELS

Serum samples were collected from 18 lemurs of four diurnal/cathemeral species housed with outdoor access at Bristol Zoo Gardens (United Kingdom) to test 25-hydroxy-vitamin D3 (25OHD3) levels as part of the veterinary department's preventative health care program. Samples were collected from each lemur in August 2008 (summer) and January 2009 (winter) to examine the effect of season on 25OHD3 levels. The lemurs were fed commercial primate food and a range of fruit and vegetables, and dietary levels of vitamin D3 remained the same throughout the study period. Statistical analysis showed that the lemurs' summer 25OHD3 values (range 26.7 to >150.0 μg/L) were significantly higher than their winter 25OHD3 values (range 11.4-87.1 μg/L). UVB measurements taken during the study period confirmed that UVB levels were significantly higher in summer (mean reading for 1200-1300 GMT time period 153.8 μW/cm2) compared to winter (mean reading for 1200-1300 GMT time period 19.4 μW/cm2). The 25OHD3 levels measured were generally found to be high compared to previously published values from wild (free-ranging) lemurs in Madagascar. The most likely explanation for this was the higher vitamin D3 content of the captive lemurs' diet, as UVB levels at the zoo (latitude 51° north) are substantially lower than those that occur in Madagascar (latitude 12°-26° south). No evidence of vitamin D toxicity or deficiency was found in any of the captive lemurs. The results indicate that vitamin D3 levels in lemurs housed with outdoor access in the United Kingdom and by extension, other regions of similar latitude, vary with seasonal environmental UVB levels, in a similar way to the seasonal variations in vitamin D3 observed in humans living in these regions, but that vitamin D levels in this captive lemur population were adequate compared to wild lemur levels, even in winter.

Necrotizing Meningoencephalitis in a Captive Black and White Ruffed Lemur (Varecia variegata variegata) Caused by Acanthamoeba T4 Genotype

A mature male, black and white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata variegata) died in a zoological garden after a 4-day history of lethargy and non-responsive convulsions. Necropsy and histopathological examinations revealed acute necrotizing and haemorrhagic meningoencephalitis with intralesional amoebas confirmed by immunohistochemistry. Acanthamoeba T4 genotype was identified as the causative agent of the brain lesion, based on amplification and sequencing of 18S ribosomal RNA genes. The presence of free-living amoebas in water and mud from the lemur's environment was investigated by morphological and molecular analyses. The two predominant genera, representing 80% of isolated amoebas, were Naegleria spp. and Acanthamoeba spp. All Acanthamoeba isolates belonged to the T4 genotype. To the author's knowledge, this is the first report of a meningoencephalitis due to Acanthamoeba T4 genotype in Lemuridae with concurrent analysis of pathological tissues and environment.

Patterns of male dispersal in Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) at Kirindy Mitea National Park

Males of many group-living mammals emigrate from their social groups to improve mating opportunities. To help mitigate the social and locational costs of dispersal and to increase reproductive benefits, they may immigrate seasonally, immigrate alongside a partner, and/or replace the alpha male (versus entering a group as a subordinate). Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) are highly seasonally breeding primates characterized by male-biased dispersal. We hypothesized that (i) males time immigrations to pursue immediate mating opportunities, (ii) entrances with partners more often result in alpha male replacement, and (iii) male competitive ability affects immigration strategy and alpha male tenure length. To assess these proximate aspects of male dispersal, we examined 7 years of demographic, morphological, and behavioral data for five social groups of Verreaux's sifaka in the Kirindy Mitea National Park in western Madagascar. Contrary to expectations and studies of sifaka dispersal in other populations, we detected no strong seasonal pattern in immigrations. Immigrations occurred individually and with partners, and a trend existed for partners to increase the likelihood of replacing an alpha male. Pronounced activity of the sternal scent gland (a proxy for testosterone and prior dominance status), but not body mass, canine size, or potential correlates of leaping ability, significantly influenced immigration strategy. The absence of a seasonal immigration pattern suggests that fluid group boundaries may allow mating success without establishment in a social group before the mating season. Our results also suggest that male immigration strategies are affected by age, prior dominance status, and testosterone levels but not morphological indicators of individual competitive ability. Coalitions may be used to improve competitive ability. Finally, differences in seasonal immigration patterns and length of alpha male vacancies observed at Kirindy Mitea may be due to the relatively low population density. Am. J. Primatol. 79:e22455, 2017. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The minimum alveolar concentration of sevoflurane in ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) and aye-ayes (Daubentonia madagascariensis)

OBJECTIVE

To determine the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of sevoflurane for ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) and aye-ayes (Daubentonia madagascariensis).

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective experimental trial.

ANIMALS

Six adult ring-tailed lemurs, aged 1.3-11.2 years (median age: 8.26) and weighing a mean ± standard deviation (SD) of 2283 ± 254 g. Five adult aye-ayes, aged 4.4-19.3 years (median age: 8.0) and weighing 2712 ± 191 g.

METHODS

Minimum alveolar concentration of sevoflurane was determined using a tail-clamp stimulus. The end-tidal sevoflurane (Fe'Sevo) concentration was increased or decreased by approximately 10% after a positive or negative response to tail clamping, respectively. This procedure was repeated until a positive and negative result were seen on two consecutive trials (i.e. a negative result was achieved and a single 10% decrease in Fe'Sevo concentration resulted in a positive test). The MAC for that animal was determined to be the mean of the concentrations at the two consecutive trials.

RESULTS

The mean ± SD MAC of sevoflurane for ring-tailed lemurs was 3.48 ± 0.55% and 1.84 ± 0.17 for aye-ayes. This represents a 47.1% higher MAC in ring-tailed lemurs compared to aye-ayes.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The sevoflurane MAC was significantly higher in ring-tailed lemurs, compared to aye-ayes. The MAC of sevoflurane in aye-ayes is consistent with reported MAC values in other species. Extrapolation of sevoflurane anesthetic dose between different species of lemurs could lead to significant errors in anesthetic dosing.

Why "monogamy" isn't good enough

Rare in mammals but more common in primates, there remains a considerable controversy concerning whether primate species traditionally described as monogamous actually express this highly specialized breeding pattern. Unfortunately the definition of "monogamy" varies greatly, inhibiting our understanding of this trait and two related traits with which monogamy is often conflated: pair-living and pair-bonding. Strepsirrhine primates are useful models to study factors that select for pair-living, pair-bonding, and monogamy because this taxon exhibits high incidences of each trait, in addition to species that exhibit behaviors that reflect combinations of these traits. Several hypotheses have been articulated to help explain the evolution of "monogamy," but again, these hypotheses often conflate pair-living, pair-bonding, and/or monogamy. In this review, we (1) propose clear, discrete, and logical definitions for each trait; (2) review variation in strepsirrhines with respect to these three traits; (3) clarify which of these traits can be explained by existing hypotheses; and (4) provide an example of the applicability of the Resource Defense Hypothesis (RDH) to understand two of these traits, pair-living and pair-bonding, in the red-bellied lemur (Eulemur rubriventer). Available data support the RDH for pair-living in red-bellied lemurs. They live in stable family groups with one adult pair. Both sexes actively codefend territories that overlap little with other pairs' territories. Agonism is extremely rare within groups and intergroup and interspecific agonism varies with food availability. Available data also support the RDH for pair-bonding. Pair-bonds are cohesive year-round. Pairs coordinate behaviors to defend territories with auditory and olfactory signals. Cohesion increases with food abundance and both sexes reinforce bonds. We indicate where additional data will help to more rigorously test the RDH for each trait and encourage others to test alternative hypotheses.

Species-level view of population structure and gene flow for a critically endangered primate (Varecia variegata)

Lemurs are among the world's most threatened mammals. The critically endangered black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata), in particular, has recently experienced rapid population declines due to habitat loss, ecological sensitivities to habitat degradation, and extensive human hunting pressure. Despite this, a recent study indicates that ruffed lemurs retain among the highest levels of genetic diversity for primates. Identifying how this diversity is apportioned and whether gene flow is maintained among remnant populations will help to diagnose and target conservation priorities. We sampled 209 individuals from 19 sites throughout the remaining V. variegata range. We used 10 polymorphic microsatellite loci and ∼550 bp of mtDNA sequence data to evaluate genetic structure and population dynamics, including dispersal patterns and recent population declines. Bayesian cluster analyses identified two distinct genetic clusters, which optimally partitioned data into populations occurring on either side of the Mangoro River. Localities north of the Mangoro were characterized by greater genetic diversity, greater gene flow (lower genetic differentiation) and higher mtDNA haplotype and nucleotide diversity than those in the south. Despite this, genetic differentiation across all sites was high, as indicated by high average F ST (0.247) and ΦST (0.544), and followed a pattern of isolation-by-distance. We use these results to suggest future conservation strategies that include an effort to maintain genetic diversity in the north and restore connectivity in the south. We also note the discordance between patterns of genetic differentiation and current subspecies taxonomy, and encourage a re-evaluation of conservation management units moving forward.

Urethral obstruction with a copulatory plug following natural breeding in a ruffed lemur, Varecia rubra

BACKGROUND

An 18-year old captive male lemur (Varecia rubra) housed in a breeding situation presented for lethargy and anorexia.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Physical exam revealed urethral obstruction.

CONCLUSIONS

Urethral plugs secondary to semen collection are common in lemurs. Here, we report the first case of naturally occurring urethral copulatory plug in a ruffed lemur.

Improving genome assemblies and annotations for nonhuman primates

The study of nonhuman primates (NHP) is key to understanding human evolution, in addition to being an important model for biomedical research. NHPs are especially important for translational medicine. There are now exciting opportunities to greatly increase the utility of these models by incorporating Next Generation (NextGen) sequencing into study design. Unfortunately, the draft status of nonhuman genomes greatly constrains what can currently be accomplished with available technology. Although all genomes contain errors, draft assemblies and annotations contain so many mistakes that they make currently available nonhuman primate genomes misleading to investigators conducting evolutionary studies; and these genomes are of insufficient quality to serve as references for NextGen studies. Fortunately, NextGen sequencing can be used in the production of greatly improved genomes. Existing Sanger sequences can be supplemented with NextGen whole genome, and exomic genomic sequences to create new, more complete and correct assemblies. Additional physical mapping, and an incorporation of information about gene structure, can be used to improve assignment of scaffolds to chromosomes. In addition, mRNA-sequence data can be used to economically acquire transcriptome information, which can be used for annotation. Some highly polymorphic and complex regions, for example MHC class I and immunoglobulin loci, will require extra effort to properly assemble and annotate. However, for the vast majority of genes, a modest investment in money, and a somewhat greater investment in time, can greatly improve assemblies and annotations sufficient to produce true, reference grade nonhuman primate genomes. Such resources can reasonably be expected to transform nonhuman primate research.

Receiver bias and the acoustic ecology of aye-ayes (Daubentonia madagascariensis)

The aye-aye is a rare lemur from Madagascar that uses its highly specialized middle digit for percussive foraging. This acoustic behavior, also termed tap-scanning, produces dominant frequencies between 6 and 15 kHz. An enhanced auditory sensitivity to these frequencies raises the possibility that the acoustic and auditory specializations of aye-ayes have imposed constraints on the evolution of their vocal signals, especially their primary long-distance vocalization, the screech. Here we explore this concept, termed receiver bias, and suggest that the dominant frequency of the screech call (~2.7 kHz) represents an evolutionary compromise between the opposing adaptive advantages of long-distance sound propagation and enhanced detection by conspecific receivers.

Dental senescence in a long-lived primate links infant survival to rainfall

Primates tend to be long-lived, and, except for humans, most primate females are able to reproduce into old age. Although aging in most mammals is accompanied by dental senescence due to advanced wear, primates have low-crowned teeth that wear down before old age. Because tooth wear alters crown features gradually, testing whether early dental senescence causes reproductive senescence has been difficult. To identify whether and when low-crowned teeth compromise reproductive success, we used a 20-year field study of Propithecus edwardsi, a rainforest lemur from Madagascar with a maximum lifespan of >27 years. We analyzed tooth wear in three dimensions with dental topographic analysis by using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) technology. We report that tooth wear exposes compensatory shearing blades that maintain dental function for 18 years. Beyond this age, female fertility remains high; however infants survive only if lactation seasons have elevated rainfall. Therefore, low-crowned teeth accommodate wear to a point, after which reproductive success closely tracks environmental fluctuations. These results suggest a tooth wear-determined, but rainfall-mediated, onset of reproductive senescence. Additionally, our study indicates that even subtle changes in climate may affect reproductive success of rainforest species.

Naturally occurring Ehrlichia chaffeensis infection in two prosimian primate species: ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) and ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata)

A naturally occurring infection of Ehrlichia chaffeensis in lemurs is described. DNA of Ehrlichia chaffeensis was identified by polymerase chain reaction in peripheral blood from six of eight clinically ill lemurs. Organisms were cultured from the blood of one lemur exhibiting clinical and hematologic abnormalities similar to those of humans infected with E. chaffeensis.